### 物理代写|量子场论代写Quantum field theory代考|PHYS7076

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## 物理代写|量子场论代写Quantum field theory代考|Projective versus True Unitary Representations

Let us start the discussion of the concepts involved in Definitions $2.10 .1$ and 2.10.3. The word “unitary” refers of course to the fact that each of the operators $U(a)$ is unitary. Unless mentioned otherwise, all representations are unitary, so that we shall nearly always omit the word “unitary”, and the expressions “representation” and “projective representations” have to be understood by default as “unitary representation” and “projective unitary representations”.

To insist that a representation satisfies $r(a, b)=1$ for all $a, b$ we will sometimes say true representation, even though throughout the book, the word “representation” means “true representation”. When we consider a representation that is only a projective representation we will always say so explicitly. It is most important to understand the relationship between representations and projective representations.

• The concept of “representation” is far more restrictive than the concept of “projective representation”.
• From the point of view of mathematics, the nice objects are representations. The study of group representations is a vast subject in mathematics.
• From the point of view of Quantum Mechanics, the natural objects are projective representations.

The following explains an important relationship between representations and projective representations.

Definition 2.11.1 Given a true representation $V$ of $G$, and for $a \in G$ a number $\lambda(a)$ of modulus 1 , the formula
$$U(a):=\lambda(a) V(a)$$
defines a projective representation, since (2.45) holds for the function
$$r(a, b)=\lambda(a b) /(\lambda(a) \lambda(b)) .$$
When this is the case we will say that the projective representation Uarises from the true representation $V$.

More generally, there is an important idea behind this definition: two projective representations $U, U^{\prime}$ such for each $a \in G$ one has $U(a)=\lambda(a) U^{\prime}(a)$ for some complex number $\lambda(a)$ with $|\lambda(a)|=1$ are to be thought of as “the same projective representation”.

## 物理代写|量子场论代写Quantum field theory代考|Mathematicians Look at Projective Representations

This material is not needed to follow the main story. It assumes that you know some very basic group theory. A map $U$ from $G$ to the group $\mathcal{U}(\mathcal{H})$ of unitary transformations of $\mathcal{H}$ is a true representation if and only if it is a group homomorphism. The group $\mathcal{U}(\mathcal{H}$ ) has a remarkable subgroup, the subgroup consisting of the transformations $\lambda 1$ with $|\lambda|=1$. Let us denote by $\mathcal{U}{p}(\mathcal{H})$ the quotient of $\mathcal{U}(\mathcal{H})$ by this subgroup, and by $\Phi$ the quotient map $\mathcal{U}(\mathcal{H}) \rightarrow \mathcal{U}{p}(\mathcal{H})$. Thus the elements of $\mathcal{U}{p}(\mathcal{H})$ are unitary operators “up to a phase”, i.e. up to a multiplicative constant of modulus 1 . It is immediate to check that a map $U$ from a group $G$ into $\mathcal{U}(\mathcal{H})$ is a projective representation in the sense of Definition $2.10 .1$ if and only $\Phi \circ U$ is a group homomorphism from $G$ to $\mathcal{U}{p}(\mathcal{H})$. The important object is thus the map $\Phi \circ U$. Accordingly, mathematicians define a projective representation as a group homomorphism from $G$ to $\mathcal{U}{p}(\mathcal{H})$. This formalizes the idea that two projective representations $U$ and $U^{\prime}$ such that $U(a)=\lambda(a) U^{\prime}(a)$ “are the same projective representation” (because this is the case if and only if $\Phi \circ U=\Phi \circ U^{\prime}$ ). Another benefit of this approach is that it becomes natural to define “continuous projective representations”, a topic which is investigated in Section A.2. In mathematical language, the fundamental question, is, given a projective representation $U$ of $G$, that is a group homomorphism from $G$ to $\mathcal{U}{p}(\mathcal{H})$, whether there exists a true representation $V$, that is a group homomorphism from $G$ to $\mathcal{U}(\mathcal{H})$, such that $U=\Phi \circ V$.

## 物理代写|量子场论代写Quantum field theory代考|Projective Representations of R

We do not investigate in detail how true and projective representations are related in general, but we examine this question in the centrally important case $G=\mathbb{R}$. However, we must first discuss a technical question. In the cases of greatest interest, $G$ is a topological group, and to avoid pathologies, one requires also a mild continuity assumption.

Definition 2.13.1 The map $a \mapsto U(a)$ which associates to each element $a$ of $G$ a unitary operator $U(a)$ is called strongly continuous if for each $x \in \mathcal{H}$ the map $a \mapsto U(a)(x)$ from $G$ to $\mathcal{H}$ is continuous.

The topology on $\mathcal{H}$ is the topology induced by its norm, so the condition of strong continuity means that for each $x \in \mathcal{H}$ the norm $\left|U(a)(x)-U\left(a_{0}\right)(x)\right|$ goes to 0 as $a \rightarrow a_{0}$. Despite the adjective “strong”, this condition is much weaker than the continuity of the map $a \mapsto U(a)$ in the operator norm.

A simple but instructive example of a representation is the case where $G=\mathbb{R}$, $\mathcal{H}=L^{2}(\mathbb{R})$ and $U(a)(f) \in L^{2}(\mathbb{R})$ is the function $w \mapsto f(w-a)$. The map $a \mapsto U(a)$ is not continuous when the space of unitary operators is provided with the topology induced by the operator norm but it is strongly continuous (as one sees by approximating $f$ with a continuous function of bounded support).

When the map $a \mapsto U(a)$ is strongly continuous, then for $x, y \in \mathcal{H}$ the map $a \mapsto(x, U(a)(y))$ is continuous. This apparently weaker condition is equivalent to strong continuity. To prove this, assume the weaker condition. Then as $a \rightarrow a_{0},\left(U(a)(x), U\left(a_{0}\right)(x)\right)$ tends to the square of the norm of $U\left(a_{0}\right)(x)$, and since both vectors $U(a)(x)$ and $U\left(a_{0}\right)(x)$ have the same norm they become close to each other (as follows from the relation $\left.|u-v|^{2}=|u|^{2}+|v|^{2}-2 \operatorname{Re}(u, v)\right)$

## 物理代写|量子场论代写Quantum field theory代考|Projective versus True Unitary Representations

• “表示”的概念比“投影表示”的概念要严格得多。
• 从数学的角度来看，好的对象是表示。群表示的研究是数学中的一门广泛的学科。
• 从量子力学的角度来看，自然物体是射影表示。

r(一个,b)=λ(一个b)/(λ(一个)λ(b)).

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