### 统计代写|描述统计学代写Descriptive statistics代考|Developments in Socio-Economic Statistics

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写描述统计学Descriptive statistics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写描述统计学Descriptive statistics代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写描述统计学Descriptive statistics相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

## 统计代写|描述统计学代写Descriptive statistics代考|Stating the Problem

Statisticians accept as a self evident principle that there is one general theory of statistics that applies equally to all fields, ${ }^{1}$ biology, economics, engineering, demography, environmental sciences, sociology, etc. (Fig. 1.1).

Yet, important applications in economics and the social sciences in general are not covered by what today is considered ‘the theory of statistics.’

This calls for a review of the situation, of methods that do not apply, and important aspects of socio-economic applications that are not supported by statistical theory. The peculiar nature of the data in socio-economic statistics requires a different basis than is available at present ${ }^{2}$ and makes it unlikely that a general ‘Theory of Statistics’ can satisfy the needs of this scientific field. Historically, the turn toward inference came from the discovery of random sampling, from experimentation in agriculture and other applications in the natural sciences. We proceed as if socioeconomic statistical data are like those in the sciences, ignoring that they differ in important ways. Because of this, the applications of social, business and economic statistics are not adequately supported by today’s statistical theory (Fig. 1.2).

## 统计代写|描述统计学代写Descriptive statistics代考|The Anglo-American Influence

The influence of the Anglo-Saxon bio-mathematicians came to dominate the development of statistical theory. The ideas of $\mathrm{K}$. and E. Pearson, R. Fisher, F. Yates, Wm. S. Gossett, M.M. Bartlett, J. Neyman, and other biometricians from the British school of thought found a fertile ground in the USA, partly due to the accessibility of their publications through the common language, and partly due to their common interest in the bio-sciences and engineering. The resulting development could be called the Anglo-American theory of statistics having entered business and economic statistics as ‘decision-making under uncertainty’ of value for business corporations and government. The Anglo-American statistical theory moved probability into a prominent position about which more is to be said in Chap. 10. Yet, the bulk of actual statistical work in the social sciences is directed primarily at the realistic perception of socio-economic phenomena such as price level movements,

demographic developments, industrial production, foreign trade or labor problems. The subsequent evaluation and interpretation of the data is the important aim of all statistical efforts. The present theory of Anglo-American statistics, however, is not directed at the interpretation of the economic and social situations described by these data, yet insisting that the available theory is appropriate and sufficient.

Authors of textbooks on business and economic statistics acknowledge their debt to the mathematicians and biologists R. Fisher, K. Pearson and ‘Student’, but do not acknowledge a greater debt to W. Leontief, R. Stone, S. Kuznets, J. Tinbergen, E. Laspeyres and others for their contributions to socio-economic statistics proper. The roots of this obvious mis-orientation go back to Adolphe Quetelet’s physique sociale, his idea of physical laws governing society like the laws in the physical sciences that were recent discoveries of his time. This idea, typical of his ‘Zeitgeist’ had a long-lasting influence. Quetelet popularized the idea that society could be treated as if it were a branch of the natural sciences. This idea was also accepted and developed by mathematical economists like Walras and Marshall, later leading into econometrics. All this consolidated the influence of these positivist ideas, ${ }^{3}$ particularly by econometricians like R. Frisch and T. Haavelmo. ${ }^{4}$

The other, related source of this mis-direction is the mistaken assumption, that socio-economic statistical data are point-like and objective like individual measurements in the natural sciences. The present theory, based on this, ignores the subjective and aggregative nature of our data.

## 统计代写|描述统计学代写Descriptive statistics代考|Socio-Economic Statistics and Decision Theory

In the late sixties, many universities in the USA began consolidating the courses on Business and Economic Statistics with courses on Decision Theories and Decision Making. The administrative convenience was evident. The real reason, however, was the obvious affinity between these two groups of courses: both were presented as based on a stochastic view of society and probability theory. Statistics was presented as an extension of making decisions under uncertainty. Such consolidation seemed only a question of time. Nevertheless, some serious objections had to be raised against it.

First, the conditions under which probability calculus, particularly the frequentist kind of probability that prevailed in courses of statistics, can predict the results of games of chance differ from those of actual business decisions. Their risk is of a different nature than that evident in games of chance. In the latter the rules of the game are fixed and known to the players in advance (the decision makers). All possible outcomes are known beforehand. Once the game begins, the rules cannot be changed. The outcomes can be predicted only for the long run, that is, when such a game is continued for many rounds. There are indeed few economic decisions of this invariant and repetitive nature ${ }^{17}$ in which the probability rules of games of chance can be applied meaningfully. ${ }^{18}$ Most business or economic decisions are made either as a compromise between the divergent views of the situation by the voting members of an executive committee, or by a corporate executive officer, without the tensions and benefits of a multidimensional perception of the situation. Economic decisions are judged by their success in the marketplace, and are based on a multiplicity of short and long range considerations, the most important of which often cannot even be quantified. Rarely can such decisions be made according to the rules of games of chance. 19 The study of such decisions is of great interest but

really belong in courses of management, finance or marketing, rather than in one of socio-economic statistics.

Second, it is important to understand how statistical input is brought to bear on business decisions. It provides the economic panorama for the decision, together with other non-statistical information. Typical were the weekly sessions of the directorate of the Du Pont de Namour corporation at which the updated, pertinent economic data series were presented and discussed. ${ }^{20}$ No immediate, concrete decisions followed from the knowledge of these data. Its high-level participants kept this statistical panorama, as it were, in the back of their minds, for the appropriate moment when a decision would be made. This is akin to a situation after a college examination when the instructor publishes the distribution of grades, and each student can assess his position among his peers. Those who ought to make changes in their study habits ${ }^{21}$ will not necessarily act ${ }^{22}$ based on such available information. ${ }^{23}$ If, however, they do decide to act, ${ }^{24}$ then they will use the given information as a guide ${ }^{25}$ in that decision-making process, but will not allow themselves to be forced to act in a specific way, like a cogwheel in a mechanical gear box. ${ }^{26}$ Nobody can object to a course in decision-making, but it should not take the place of business, economic and social statistics properly speaking.

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## MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。