### 统计代写|机器学习代写machine learning代考|The Learning Problem and Inference

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写机器学习machine learning方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写机器学习machine learning代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写机器学习machine learning相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

## 统计代写|机器学习代写machine learning代考|The Learning Problem and Inference

This chapter introduces the general problem of machine learning and how it relates to statistical inference. It gives a short, example-based overview about supervised, unsupervised and reinforcement learning. The discussion of how to design a learning system for the problem of handwritten digit recognition shows that kernel classifiers offer some great advantages for practical machine learning. Not only are they fast and simple to implement, but they are also closely related to one of the most simple but effective classification algorithms – the nearest neighbor classifier. Finally, the chapter discusses which theoretical questions are of particular, and practical, importance.

It was only a few years after the introduction of the first computer that one of man’s greatest dreams seemed to be realizable-artificial intelligence. It was envisaged that machines would perform intelligent tasks such as vision, recognition and automatic data analysis. One of the first steps toward intelligent machines is machine learning.

The learning problem can be described as finding a general rule that explains data given only a sample of limited size. The difficulty of this task is best compared to the problem of children learning to speak and see from the continuous flow of sounds and pictures emerging in everyday life. Bearing in mind that in the early days the most powerful computers had much less computational power than a cell phone today, it comes as no surprise that much theoretical research on the potential of machines’ capabilities to learn took place at this time. One of the most influential works was the textbook by Minsky and Papert (1969) in which they investigate whether or not it is realistic to expect machines to learn complex tasks. They found that simple, biologically motivated learning systems called perceptrons were incapable of learning an arbitrarily complex problem. This negative result virtually stopped active research in the field for the next ten years. Almost twenty years later, the work by Rumelhart et al. (1986) reignited interest in the problem of machine learning. The paper presented an efficient, locally optimal learning algorithm for the class of neural networks, a direct generalization of perceptrons. Since then, an enormous number of papers and books have been published about extensions and empirically successful applications of neural networks. Among them, the most notable modification is the so-called support vector machine-a learning algorithm for perceptrons that is motivated by theoretical results from statistical learning theory. The introduction of this algorithm by Vapnik and coworkers (see Vapnik (1995) and Cortes (1995)) led many researchers to focus on learning theory and its potential for the design of new learning algorithms.

## 统计代写|机器学习代写machine learning代考|Supervised Learning

In the problem of supervised learning we are given a sample of input-output pairs (also called the training sample), and the task is to find a deterministic function that maps any input to an output such that disagreement with future input-output observations is minimized. Clearly, whenever asked for the target value of an object present in the training sample, it is possible to return the value that appeared the highest number of times together with this object in the training sample. However, generalizing to new objects not present in the training sample is difficult. Depending on the type of the outputs, classification learning, preference learning and function learning are distinguished.

If the output space has no structure except whether two elements of the output space are equal or not, this is called the problem of classification learning. Each element of the output space is called a class. This problem emerges in virtually any pattern recognition task. For example, the classification of images to the classes “image depicts the digit $x$ ” where $x$ ranges from “zero” to “nine” or the classification of image elements (pixels) into the classes “pixel is a part of a cancer tissue” are standard benchmark problems for classification learning algorithms (see also Figure 1.1). Of particular importance is the problem of binary classification, i.e., the output space contains only two elements, one of which is understood as the positive class and the other as the negative class. Although conceptually very simple, the binary setting can be extended to multiclass classification by considering a series of binary classifications.

## 统计代写|机器学习代写machine learning代考|Unsupervised Learning

In addition to supervised learning there exists the task of unsupervised learning. In unsupervised learning we are given a training sample of objects, for example images or pixels, with the aim of extracting some “structure” from them-e.g., identifying indoor or outdoor images, or differentiating between face and background pixels. This is a very vague statement of the problem that should be rephrased better as learning a concise representation of the data. This is justified by the following reasoning: If some structure exists in the training objects, it is possible to take advantage of this redundancy and find a short description of the data. One of the most general ways to represent data is to specify a similarity between any pairs of objects. If two objects share much structure, it should be possible to reproduce the data from the same “prototype”. This idea underlies clustering algorithms: Given a fixed number of clusters, we aim to find a grouping of the objects such that similar objects belong to the same cluster. We view all objects within one cluster as being similar to each other. If it is possible to find a clustering such that the similarities of the objects in one cluster are much greater than the similarities among objects from different clusters, we have extracted structure from the training sample insofar as that the whole cluster can be represented by one representative. From a statistical point of view, the idea of finding a concise representation of the data is closely related to the idea of mixture models, where the overlap of high-density regions of the individual mixture components is as small as possible (see Figure 1.4). Since we do not observe the mixture component that generated a particular training object, we have to treat the assignment of training examples to the mixture components as hidden variables-a fact that makes estimation of the unknown probability measure quite intricate. Most of the estimation procedures used in practice fall into the realm of expectation-maximization (EM) algorithms (Dempster et al. 1977).

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## MATLAB代写

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