## 经济代写|国际经济学代写International Economics代考|EC340

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写国际经济学International Economics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写国际经济学International Economics代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写国际经济学International Economics相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
• Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

## 经济代写|国际经济学代写International Economics代考|Trade Indifference Curves and Alternative Derivation of Offer Curves

Trade indifference curves (TICs) are a useful tool in discussing the welfare properties of free or restricted trade equilibrium. James Meade used TICs to propose an alternative way of deriving offer curves. A TIC for a country is the locus of different combinations of its export supply and import demand that yield the same national welfare for the country. Accordingly, the country is indifferent among all such combinations. In the export-import space, each TIC is positively sloped. The reason is as follows. An increase in export supply by the country means lesser units of the export good are now available for domestic consumption. This lowers the welfare of the country. Thus, to compensate and keep the national welfare at the same level, the other good (which is imported by the country) must be available for domestic consumption in greater quantity. Hence, along a TIC, an increase in export supply must be accompanied by an increase in import demand.

The other properties of TICs are similar to that of CICs, since TICs by definition replicate CICs in the excess-demand (or offer) space. That is, each TIC is convex to the export-axis and a higher TIC, which is further away from the country’s export-axis, represents a higher national welfare. That a higher (non-intersecting) TIC represents a higher national welfare is easily comprehensible, and is left as an exercise. It is also assumed that taste patterns are such that TICs do not intersect each other so that, like the CICs, we can attach a unique utility or welfare index to each TIC and the export-import combinations on different TICs can be Pareto ranked in the sense discussed earlier. The TIC map for the home country is illustrated in Figure A4.3.
Actual offer of exports in exchange for import demand by the home country, however, should be consistent with its budget constraints at the post-trade prices. The budget constraints for different TOT are shown by TOT lines through the origin. Thus facing the TOT indicated by the ray $O a_1$, the home country makes an offer of the combination $b_1$ that maximizes its welfare. An improved TOT enables the country to improve its welfare by offering $b_2$, and so on. Note that each of these offers is consistent with balanced trade. The locus connecting this welfare-maximizing and balanced trade offers traces out the offer curve for the home country. From this alternative derivation of a country’s offer curve emerges the welfare property of offers made by it for different TOT. Any point on the offer curve represents an offer of export supply and import demand for which trade is balanced and welfare is maximized for the corresponding TOT.

Note that by construction, at the free trade international equilibrium point $E$ in Figure $4.5$, the trade indifference curves of the two countries are tangent to the TOT line $O E$ and hence are mutually tangent to each other.

## 经济代写|国际经济学代写International Economics代考|Measurement and Trends in Barter TOT

A country may export and import thousands of commodities, and thus it only makes sense to measure a country’s TOT by the export price index relative to the import price index. Often these price indices are measured by the unit value indices for exports and imports. These unit value indices are constructed from data on exports and imports-both value and volumereported by countries. The unit value of exports, as a proxy for the export price index, is simply the index of value of exports divided by the index of volume of exports. The unit value of imports is similarly calculated. Finally, the ratio of the unit value index of exports to the unit value index of imports gives us the net barter terms of trade of a country.

Figure A4.4 illustrates movements in net barter TOT for four developed countries – Canada, Japan, UK, and USA-during 2000-19 with 2000 as the base year, as reported in UNCTAD Trade Statistics 2020. Both UK and the United States have stable and almost unchanged net barter TOT during this period. Canada experienced steady improvement in its net barter TOT till 2008 before it worsened. But, the net barter TOT for Japan deteriorated sharply before improving marginally after 2016. Figure A4.5, on the other hand, illustrates movements in net barter TOT for the developing countries like Brazil, China, India, Korea, and Mexico during the same period. Similar to Japan, Korea experienced continuous worsening of its net barter TOT till it stabilized to some extent after 2015 . The most interesting observation that can be made is movements in TOT of the other four countries. TOT of China and India, on the one hand, and of Brazil and Mexico, on the other hand, moved in tandem though almost exactly in the opposite directions. That is, while China and India experienced worsening of their respective TOTs during 2000-12, Brazil and Mexico enjoyed improving TOT. Subsequently, after 2015 in particular, the trends reversed for these countries.

There are many plausible explanations for such wide variations in TOT movement both across time and across countries as we will learn in later chapters.

## 经济代写|国际经济学代写国际经济学代考|贸易无差异曲线和报价曲线的可选推导

.

tic的其他属性与CICs相似，因为tic从定义上复制了过剩需求(或提供)空间中的CICs。也就是说，每个TIC都是出口轴的凸点，越高的TIC，越远离国家的出口轴，代表越高的国家福利。较高的(不交叉的)TIC代表较高的国家福利，这一点很容易理解，因此就留作练习。我们还假设，味觉模式是这样的，TIC之间不会交叉，因此，像CICs一样，我们可以给每个TIC附加一个独特的效用或福利指数，不同TIC上的进出口组合可以按照前面讨论的意义进行帕累托排序。母国的议会地图见图A4.3。但是，本国以出口换取进口需求的实际提议应符合其在贸易后价格下的预算限制。不同TOT的预算约束由通过原点的TOT线表示。因此，面对射线$O a_1$所表示的TOT，母国提出了使其福利最大化的组合$b_1$。一个改进的TOT使国家能够通过提供$b_2$来改善其福利，等等。请注意，这些提议都符合平衡贸易。连接福利最大化和平衡贸易提供的轨迹是母国提供曲线的轨迹。从这个对一国提供曲线的替代推导中，可以得出该国为不同TOT所提供的服务的福利性质。报价曲线上的任何一点都代表出口供给和进口需求的报价，对于相应的TOT，贸易是平衡的，福利是最大化的。

## 有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

## MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

## 经济代写|国际经济学代写International Economics代考|ECN422

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写国际经济学International Economics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写国际经济学International Economics代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写国际经济学International Economics相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
• Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

## 经济代写|国际经济学代写International Economics代考|Global Pareto optimality of free trade bundle

Free trade bundle, despite being sub-optimal for each large country in the case specified and illustrated above, is globally Pareto optimal. A Pareto optimal bundle is the one such that if we deviate from this bundle then at least one of the countries will be worse off. This can be verified from Figure 4.7. All the bundles along the aE segment of the foreign offer curve lie in the better set to the free trade bundle for the home country, but in the worse set to the free trade bundle for the foreign country. Thus, for all such trade bundles, achieved by the home country through a trade restriction policy, the home country will be better off but the foreign country will be worse off. Similarly, for all trade bundles along aE segment of the home offer curve, achieved by the foreign country through a trade restriction policy, the foreign country will be better off but the home country will be worse off. On the other hand, for any trade bundle that lie below $T I C_f$ below $T I C_f^$ and-such as bundles along the Oa segment of the home offer curve and along the $\mathrm{Oa}^*$ segment of the foreign offer curve-both countries are worse off relative to free trade.
Note that, free trade bundle emerges as the globally Pareto optimal bundle because of the fact that a pair of TICs of both the countries are tangent to each other for this bundle. If the TICs would have crossed each other at the free trade bundle, then some other trade bundles would have existed for which either both countries would have been better off; or one of them would have been better off with the other country being indifferent, that is, having the same welfare as for the free trade bundle.

This global Pareto optimality property of the free trade bundle has some far-reaching implications for trade wars, and for formation of regional trading blocs, as we will learn later.

## 经济代写|国际经济学代写International Economics代考|Existence, Uniqueness, and Stability of International Equilibrium

Existence of international equilibrium depicted in Figure $4.5$ requires that the two offer curves must cross each for a trade bundle containing strictly positive volumes of export offer and import demand. The assumption of non-decreasing opportunity costs and corresponding convexity of offer curves though help in this regard, but they may not be sufficient. Assuming that the offer curves are continuous, a sufficient condition for existence of international equilibrium is that at least one offer curve must be backward bending. However, though this might ensure existence, it may lead to multiple equilibria. This is evident from Figure 4.6.

Algebraically, the conditions of existence, uniqueness, and stability can be derived using the excess demand function approach. Consider the world market for the good imported by the home country and exported by the foreign country (that is, the world market for computers). Referring back to equation (4.2), define excess demand function $E\left(p^n\right)$ as:
$$E\left(p^n\right)=M\left(p^\right)-X^\left(p^w\right)$$
By the world-clearing condition (4.1) in the text, the (world) equilibrium price $p_c^{\text {” }}$ is such that, $E\left(p_c^w\right)=0$. Then, if this excess demand function is continuous in $p^w$, the following conditions ensure that $p_e^w>0$ (that is, an equilibrium price exists):
(a) There exists a price $p_0^w>0$ such that $E\left(p_0^w\right)>0$
(b) There exists a price $p_1^w>0$ such that $E\left(p_1^w\right)<0$ Figure A4.2 under the assumption that $p_0^w0$ will be unique. This is illustrated in Figure A4.2b. As it appears, the uniqueness is ensured by a monotonic excess demand function.

## 经济代写|国际经济学代写国际经济学代考|国际均衡的存在性、唯一性和稳定性

$$E\left(p^n\right)=M\left(p^\right)-X^\left(p^w\right)$$

(a)存在一个价格$p_0^w>0$使得$E\left(p_0^w\right)>0$
(b)存在一个价格$p_1^w>0$使得$E\left(p_1^w\right)<0$图A4.2在假设$p_0^w0$是唯一的情况下。图A4.2b说明了这一点。正如它所显示的那样，唯一性是由一个单调的超额需求函数保证的

## 有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

## MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

## 经济代写|国际经济学代写International Economics代考|ECON440

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写国际经济学International Economics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写国际经济学International Economics代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写国际经济学International Economics相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
• Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

## 经济代写|国际经济学代写International Economics代考|WELFARE PROPERTIES OF THE INTERNATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM

Welfare property of the international equilibrium can be discussed in terms of a set of trade indifference curves (TICs). A TIC for a country is the locus of different combinations of her export supply and import demand that yield the same level of her national welfare. As explained in the appendix, a TIC is positively sloped in the offer space. It has similar properties as the CIC. The most relevant in the present context is that a higher TIC (that is a TIC away from the country’s export axis) represents higher national welfare. That is, while national welfare realized from a trade bundle is indicated by the TIC on which that trade bundle lie, a higher welfare is realized from a trade bundle on a higher TIC than from a trade bundle on a lower TIC. Thus, at free-trade equilibrium $\mathrm{E}$ in Figure 4.7, the home country attains the welfare level as indicated by $T I C_f$ and the foreign country attains the welfare level as indicated by $\mathrm{TIC}_f^*$ Moreover, from the alternative derivation of offer curves as suggested by James Meade, and discussed in the appendix to this chapter, it follows that the pair of TICs of the home and foreign country passing through free trade bundle E will be tangent to the terms of trade line $\mathrm{OE}$, and consequently will be tangent to each other. This tangency property of the free trade bundle makes it a globally Pareto optimal bundle. We will return to this dimension of the free trade bundle after revisiting the gains from trade.

## 经济代写|国际经济学代写International Economics代考|Gains from trade revisited

Figure $4.7$ provides an alternative illustration of the gains from trade (GFT). Since a higher TIC represents higher welfare so the better set to the free trade bundle for the home country is the region above $T I C_f$ and the worse set is the region below it. Similarly, for the foreign country, the region above (or to the right of) represents the better set to the free trade bundle and the region below it (or to the left of it) $T I C_f^*$ represents the worse set. The autarkic bundle $(0,0)$ lies in the worse set to the equilibrium trade bundle E for both the countries. Hence, both countries gain as they open up trade between them.

However, though free trade raises welfare for both the countries, it does not maximize their welfare levels. The home country can gain further by offering any trade bundle along the segment aE of the foreign curve since all such trade bundles lie in the better set to the free trade bundle. By similar reasoning, the foreign country can gain further by offering any trade bundle along the segment $a^* E$ of the home offer curve. Therefore, the gains from trade do not mean that welfares of the trading nations are maximized under free trade. It simply states that free trade will make trading nations better off relative to no-trade or autarchy. What follows from this is that each country will have unilateral incentive to deviate from the offer of the free trade bundle E. As we will see in Chapter 9, each country can achieve these preferred bundles by trade restrictive policies like tariff (or import tax) and import quota. Of course, the size of the countries, or their importance in world trade, will matter as we will learn later. For countries that are large enough in world trade to influence the terms of trade by altering their export offers (or import demand), free trade does not maximize their respective national welfare levels, even though it raises welfare above the autarchic level. This forms the basis for welfare motive for restricting trade, rather than pursuing free trade, for such countries.

## 有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

## MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

## 经济代写|国际经济学代写International Economics代考|BEA105

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写国际经济学International Economics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写国际经济学International Economics代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写国际经济学International Economics相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
• Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

## 经济代写|国际经济学代写International Economics代考|SCOPE AND ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK

Given these perspectives, this textbook introduces students and researchers to the basic principles of international exchange and its causes and consequences, as expounded by David Hume in his international monetary analysis in the eighteenth century and David Ricrado in his principles of comparative advantage in the early nineteenth century, and further developed later by Eli Heckscher, Bertil Ohlin, and Paul Samuelson. More complex dimensions of trade and factor flows, intricacies of trade and exchange rate policies, international trade rules and standards, and open economy macroeconomic issues are also discussed in the later part of the book. Though this textbook is primarily meant for undergraduate students, some advanced topics are intended to take them beyond the standard undergraduate courses taught in universities and institutes around the globe. These topics can also be used as a primer for postgraduate courses on international trade theory and policy. In particular, Chapters 3,12 , 13, and 18 discuss such advanced topics, which may be skipped by for a basic undergraduate course without any loss of logical continuity. Similarly, there are a few sub-sections in some of the chapters marked as advanced topics, which may be optional segments in the basic undergraduate courses on international economics.

The prerequisite for this textbook is a basic understanding of intermediate-level microeconomics and macroeconomics, and high-school algebra. Basic concepts and issues of international economics are introduced through simple logical arguments followed by graphical illustrations. Algebra comes in only as a supplement to provide a structure to the argument, or where the issues at hand require quantification.

Part I of the book is devoted to providing answers to the three basic questions of international economics. Chapter 1 discusses the basic principles of international exchange and trade. It encompasses both the Smithian concept of absolute advantage and the Ricardian concept of comparative (cost) advantage. Public policies influencing a country’s comparative advantage and pattern of trade are the added dimensions in the discussion on the basis of trade. Chapter 2 analyses when countries gain from trade and what such gains mean for different groups of economic agents within countries. Chapter 3 is meant for advanced readers who would like to know how the principles of comparative advantage can be estimated empirically. The determination of the terms of trade and properties of international equilibrium are discussed in Chapter 4 .

## 经济代写|国际经济学代写International Economics代考|Basis of Inter-industry Trade

International trade in commodities among countries can take a variety of forms. According to the nature of commodities being exported and imported, international trade can be classified into inter-industry and intra-industry trade. Trade is inter-industry in character if the commodities that are being exported and imported by a country belong to distinctly different industry groups. For example, when India exports rice, fruits and vegetables, and textiles, and imports wheat, sugar, and scientific instruments, such trade is inter-industry trade. But India, like many other countries, also exports and imports commodities that belong to the same industry group and are similar or may even be identical. These products are differentiated from each other either marginally or substantially. For example, software of different kinds and uses, or automobiles of different varieties and models, are exported as well as imported by India. This type of trade falls under the category of intra-industry trade.

A first-hand distinction between inter- and intra-industry trade can be made in the context of bilateral trade between China and India in 2004 as reported in Table 1.1. The top six export items for each country in terms of their shares in the respective total exports are shown in Table 1.1. Exports of iron and steel, plastics, cotton, and salt by India to China and exports of electrical machinery, nuclear reactors, silk, and mineral fuels by China to India are interindustry in character. Both countries also export organic and inorganic chemicals to each other. In terms of this broad classification of industrial goods, this part of bilateral trade, which accounts for 11 and 18 per cent of the total bilateral exports from India and China respectively, is intra-industry in character.

Issues and explanations for these two types of trade are totally different. For example, in the context of inter-industry trade the relevant issue is what governs the pattern of trade between countries such as the one reported here between China and India. For intra-industry trade, on the other hand, it is important to know why both countries export similar industrial goods such as organic and inorganic chemicals in the above example, to each other. In this chapter we begin with the traditional explanations of inter-industry trade. Alternative explanations of intra-industry trade are discussed later in Chapter $8 .$

## 有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

## MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

## 经济代写|国际经济学代写International Economics代考|ECON390

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写国际经济学International Economics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写国际经济学International Economics代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写国际经济学International Economics相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
• Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

## 经济代写|国际经济学代写International Economics代考|Free Trade versus Protection

Despite gains from trade, countries have often been observed, at least till the recent waves of globalization beginning in the $1980 \mathrm{~s}$, to restrict trade through import tariffs and non-tariff barriers. History of protectionism dates a long way back to the mercantilist idea in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Europe that manufacturing exports should be encouraged and imports of the same should be discouraged. For raw materials, imports should be encouraged instead. The idea behind this selective trade restriction and promotion was that manufacturing production and exports are essential for development and growth and raw materials are an important component of the production for manufacturing. Later in the nineteenth century, Robert Torrens, John Stuart Mill, and Alfred Marshall argued that there exists scope for further improvement in a nation’s welfare over and above the free trade level by restricting trade if the country is large enough to influence the terms of trade in its favour. This led to the theory of optimum tariff by Francis Edgeworth and Nicholas Kaldor.

The post-World War II development in the theory of international trade identified at least three more justifications for trade interventions. First, when externalities in production or consumption are present, which lead to incorrect patterns of production specialization and trade, trade intervention might be a better trade policy than free trade. This is, however, the theory of second best, since trade interventions cannot fully correct-and in some cases they may actually accentuate-these kind of domestic distortions. Second, a newly developed industry requires protection from foreign competition in its initial formative years when production and other operational costs are high. When the industry has grown sufficiently enough over time to attain its optimum scale of operation. average costs come down and it can then withstand foreign competition. The long-run gains to be had from protecting an infant industry must be thus weighed against the consumption and production losses in the short run. This is the infant industry argument for protection, which is essentially a dynamic argument.

Last but not least, the strategic trade theories provide a further justification for trade interventions. When national monopolies are large conglomerates and have market powers even in international markets for the goods that they produce, trade policies can be used by national governments to influence the international market share rivalry amongst these large monopolies to the national advantage.

## 经济代写|国际经济学代写International Economics代考|Balance of Payments and Exchange Rate Regime

Values of exports and imports of goods and services and buying and selling of assets undertaken by economic agents according to principles of comparative advantage may not exactly match with each other. But a country cannot print foreign currency to meet the demand for these currencies by its importers of goods and services; that is, it will have to earn foreign currency by exporting goods and services or selling its domestic assets. So the issue that is of utmost importance is how to correct for payment imbalances when a country’s receipts of foreign currency fall short of payments to be made for imports. This is linked to a country’s choice of exchange rate regime. If a market-determined flexible exchange rate for its own currency vis-à-vis foreign currencies is chosen, then payment imbalances that actually mean excess demand for or excess supply of foreign currencies can be automatically corrected through changes in the exchange rate. But this comes with a cost as such exchange rate movements may cause inflation or trigger recession. A pegged exchange rate for its domestic currency, on the other hand, can insulate the real sectors of an economy from such adverse effects, but it calls for some policy interventions to correct for payment imbalances. Moreover, to meet the excess demand for foreign currency in cases of payment deficits, the monetary authority of the country must sell foreign currencies from its reserves. As we will learn from this book, this may potentially lead to a balance of payments crisis for the country in the long run when perpetual payment deficits run down reserves of foreign currencies. The country will then default on its international debt obligations as was almost the case for India in March $1991 .$

## 有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

## MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

## 经济代写|国际经济学代写International Economics代考|EC3016

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写国际经济学International Economics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写国际经济学International Economics代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写国际经济学International Economics相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
• Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

## 经济代写|国际经济学代写International Economics代考|Causes, Pattern, and Consequences of International Trade

Therc arc threc basic issucs that the thcory of intcrnational tradc is primarily conccrncd with. First, when do countries engage in international trade in goods and services? What are the factors that drive goods and factors to flow from one country to the other? In the neoclassical theory of international trade in the tradition of David Ricardo, Eli Heckscher, Bertil Ohlin, and Paul Samuelson, the dissimilarities between countries in fundamentals like production technology, factor endowments, and tastes and preferences for goods and services provide the basis of trade. Such dissimilarities translate into differences in prices of goods (and services) across nations, or what is known as the comparative advantage of nations, and lead to cross-country arbitrage-buying cheap and selling dear-and hence international exchange or trade. Alternatives to this explanation of comparative advantage and arbitrage in international trade are based on economies of scale, product market imperfections, and product differentiation in the new trade theories that were developed in the late 1970s and early 1980s by Paul Krugman, James Brander, and Elhanan Helpman among others. For example, pricing above marginal cost under monopoly production of the same good in each country generates scope for national monopolists to dump their production in each other’s markets and yet make profits. International trade in an identical gond thus takes place through recipmcal dumping even when countries are similar, resulting in the same prices of similar goods everywhere and thereby leaving no scope for arbitrage.

The second issue involves two questions: Why do we observe certain patterns of trade between countries? Why do some countries export manufactured goods such as cotton textiles or leather goods and others export agricultural goods like rice? Even within the former group of countries, the pattern of trade varies widely according to the capital and skill content of manufacturing exports. In general, developed countries are observed to export more capital-intensive and more skill-intensive goods. Developing countries, on the other hand, are typically exporters of unskilled-labour-intensive commodities. At the same time, there are developing countries like Brazil, China, and India that export a sizeable volume of high-technology and skill-intensive goods and services like chemical products (including pharmaceutical products), scientific instruments, software, and office equipment, along with low-skill-intensive manufacturing goods like cotton textiles and leather manufactures. All these examples of diverse trade patterns of nations, in fact, reflect their dissimilarities; that is, the pattern of trade is also determined by the principles of comparative advantage. Heckscher and Ohlin, for example, postulated that countries that are relatively labour abundant will export relatively labourintensive goods and import relatively capital-intensive goods from countries that are relatively capital abundant. This later came to be known as the Heckscher-Ohlin theorem.

## 经济代写|国际经济学代写International Economics代考|International Trade and Output Growth

Achieving a high and sustained growth path constitutes a major economic target for countries since in public perception it is often the sole indicator of successful governance. Whether international trade augments or retards the growth process is thus another important issue in international trade theory and empirics. This issue has received much attention since the writings of Adam Smith in the late eighteenth century on the productivity gains that international trade may usher in by widening the scope of the market, thereby making greater division of labour possible. His productivity theory subsequently led to a theory of export-led growth as coined by Sir Denis Robertson in 1940. To David Ricardo, on the other hand, international trade was a way of delaying the stationary state for the fast-growing industrialized nations. Country experiences, however, do not always support the export-led growth hypothesis. More recent empirical studies by Dani Rodrik and others have refined this export-led growth hypothesis by emphasizing on the fact that what a country exports may matter more than how much it exports. High growth rate in many countries seems to have been driven more by exports of high-technology and skill-intensive goods rather than by low-skill-intensive and low-value addition goods than anything else. On the other hand, a diversified export basket, rather than a very specialized and concentrated export basket, seems to make the trade-growth relationship stronger at relatively lower stages of growth of countries. Specialization matters only after countries are already on a higher growth path.

At the same time serious concerns were raised by economists like Jagdish Bhagwati and Harry Johnson, among others, about welfare consequences of such export-led or export-biased growth. If growth caused by domestic factor accumulation augments the exports of a country, its terms of trade may move against it. This inflicts a secondary burden, which if large enough may outweigh the primary benefits of growth. Thus, growth in an open economy may be immiserizing. The other concern that arises and has been the subject of empirical study is the redistributive effect of growth that international trade causes. During the 1950s, Simon Kuznets argued about an inverted-U relationship between per capita income growth and income inequality. At the initial stages of growth, income inequality accentuates and beyond a threshold growth level it declines. This relationship, known as the Kuznets Curve, means that international trade may cause further income inequality through its growth impact, in addition to its short-run income redistribution effects. Growth may also be exclusive rather than inclusive as it may bypass the unskilled and the poor and benefit only the handful of rich. Faster output growth achieved by many countries in the present era of globalization and trade liberalization often has this inherent exclusiveness.

## 有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

## MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。