## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|ASTR3002

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写宇宙学cosmology方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写宇宙学cosmology代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写宇宙学cosmology相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|The fundamental equations of cosmology

Almost all of cosmology consists of a series of applications of two fundamental equations of physics: the Einstein equations describing gravity; and the Boltzmann equation of statistical mechanics describing matter and radiation. In this chapter, we have provided a concise summary of these equations and applied them to the smooth and, in the case of the Boltzmann equation, perturbed universe.
The full Einstein equations are
$$G_{\mu \nu} \equiv R_{\mu \nu}-\frac{1}{2} g_{\mu \nu} R=8 \pi G T_{\mu \nu},$$
where we have included the cosmological constant (or other form of dark energy) on the right-hand side. Applied to the FLRW metric and assuming a Euclidean universe, we derived the Friedmann equation for the scale factor $a(t)$ :
$$\frac{H^2(t)}{H_0^2}=\frac{\rho(t)}{\rho_{\mathrm{cr}}}=\sum_{s=\mathrm{r}, \mathrm{m}, v, \mathrm{DE}} \Omega_s[a(t)]^{-3\left(1+w_s\right)} .$$
Later chapters will be wholly devoted to studying perturbations around the homogeneous universe. Including these, we write the perturbed metric as
\begin{aligned} &g_{00}(\boldsymbol{x}, t)=-1-2 \Psi(\boldsymbol{x}, t), \ &g_{0 i}(\boldsymbol{x}, t)=0, \ &g_{i j}(\boldsymbol{x}, t)=a^2(t) \delta_{i j}[1+2 \Phi(\boldsymbol{x}, t)], \end{aligned}
and work to linear order in $\Psi, \Phi$ throughout. Deferring the derivation of the Einstein equations in the perturbed universe to Ch. 6 , we solved the geodesic equation in the perturbed universe in this chapter. The comoving momentum becomes
$$P^\mu=\left[E(1-\Psi), p^i \frac{1-\Phi}{a}\right],$$
where $E=\sqrt{p^2+m^2}$ is the proper energy and $p$ is the physical momentum. The geodesic equation yields
$$\frac{d p^i}{d t}=-(H+\dot{\Phi}) p^i-\frac{E}{a} \Psi_{, i}-\frac{1}{a} \frac{p^i}{E} p^k \Phi_{, k}+\frac{p^2}{a E} \Phi_{, i},$$
a compact relation which contains such diverse physics as Newtonian dynamics and gravitational lensing and which we will make use of many times throughout this book.

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|The origin of species

The very early universe was hot and dense. As a result, interactions among particles occurred much more frequently than they do today. As an example, a photon in the visible band today can typically travel across much of the observable universe without deflection or capture, so it has a mean free path greater than $10^{28} \mathrm{~cm}$. When the age of the universe was equal to $1 \mathrm{sec}$, though, the mean free path of a photon was about the size of an atom. Thus, in the time it took the universe to expand by a factor of 2, a given photon interacted many, many times. These multiple interactions kept many of the constituents in the universe in equilibrium. Nonetheless, there were times when reactions could not proceed rapidly enough to maintain equilibrium conditions. Not coincidentally, these times are of the utmost interest to cosmologists.

Indeed, we will see in this chapter that out-of-equilibrium phenomena played a role in (i) the formation of the light elements during Big Bang Nucleosynthesis; (ii) recombination of electrons and protons into neutral hydrogen; and possibly in (iii) the production of dark matter in the early universe. It is important to understand that all three phenomena are the result of nonequilibrium physics and that all three can be studied with the same formalism: the Boltzmann equation in the homogeneous universe, as introduced in Sect. 3.2. Sects. $4.2-4.4$ of this chapter are simply applications of this general formula.

To summarize, in this chapter we will go beyond our treatment in Ch. 2 by considering out-of-equilibrium processes in the universe, but we still work within the framework of a homogeneous universe. In succeeding chapters, we will then move beyond uniformity and explore distribution functions for matter and radiation that depend on both position and direction of propagation.

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|宇宙学的基本方程

$$G_{\mu \nu} \equiv R_{\mu \nu}-\frac{1}{2} g_{\mu \nu} R=8 \pi G T_{\mu \nu},$$
，其中我们在右边包含了宇宙常数(或其他形式的暗能量)。应用于FLRW度规并假设一个欧几里德宇宙，我们导出了比例因子$a(t)$:
$$\frac{H^2(t)}{H_0^2}=\frac{\rho(t)}{\rho_{\mathrm{cr}}}=\sum_{s=\mathrm{r}, \mathrm{m}, v, \mathrm{DE}} \Omega_s[a(t)]^{-3\left(1+w_s\right)} .$$

\begin{aligned} &g_{00}(\boldsymbol{x}, t)=-1-2 \Psi(\boldsymbol{x}, t), \ &g_{0 i}(\boldsymbol{x}, t)=0, \ &g_{i j}(\boldsymbol{x}, t)=a^2(t) \delta_{i j}[1+2 \Phi(\boldsymbol{x}, t)], \end{aligned}
，并在$\Psi, \Phi$中始终按线性顺序工作。本章将摄动宇宙中爱因斯坦方程的推导推至第六章，求解摄动宇宙中的测地线方程。移动动量变为
$$P^\mu=\left[E(1-\Psi), p^i \frac{1-\Phi}{a}\right],$$

$$\frac{d p^i}{d t}=-(H+\dot{\Phi}) p^i-\frac{E}{a} \Psi_{, i}-\frac{1}{a} \frac{p^i}{E} p^k \Phi_{, k}+\frac{p^2}{a E} \Phi_{, i},$$

## 有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

## MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|PHYS3080

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写宇宙学cosmology方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写宇宙学cosmology代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写宇宙学cosmology相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|The geodesic equation

In order to derive the Boltzmann equation, we need to know how particles move within the perturbed spacetime. Again, this is determined by the geodesic equation which we considered in Sect. 2.1.2, and which we now extend to include the spacetime perturbations $\Phi, \Psi$. In particular, our goal is to calculate $d x^i / d t, d p / d t$, and $d \hat{p}^i / d t$ to insert into Eq. (3.33). The mass-shell constraint for a particle with mass $m$ is now given by
$$g_{\mu \nu} P^\mu P^v=-(1+2 \Psi)\left(P^0\right)^2+p^2=-m^2,$$
where again
$$p^2 \equiv g_{i j} P^i P^j \text {. }$$
We will continue to define the energy as $E(p) \equiv \sqrt{p^2+m^2}$. In the massless case, we obviously have $E=p$. We can now eliminate the time component of $P^\mu$ through
$$P^0=\frac{E}{\sqrt{1+2 \Psi}}=E(1-\Psi) .$$

This last equality holds since we are doing first-order perturbation theory in the small quantity $\Psi$. Similarly, we can use Eq. (3.58) to derive $P^i$. This yields the four-momentum of a massive particle in a perturbed FLRW spacetime (which includes the massless case):
$$P^\mu=\left[E(1-\Psi), p^i \frac{1-\Phi}{a}\right] .$$
Here, we have defined $p^i$ through
$$p^i=p \hat{p}^i \quad \text { where } \quad \hat{p}^i=\hat{p}i$$ is a unit vector satisfying $\delta{i j} \hat{p}^i \hat{p}^j=1$ as before. Eq. (3.60) allows us to eliminate $P^0$ and $P^i$ in favor of $E(p), p$, the magnitude of the momentum, and $\hat{p}^i$ whenever they occur. Moreover, plugging these into Eq. (3.20) yields the expressions for the energy-momentum tensor in terms of the distribution function in the presence of metric perturbations (see Exercise $3.12$ ) which we will need later.

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|The collisionless Boltzmann equation for radiation

The Boltzmann equation for radiation, i.e. ultra-relativistic particles, in the perturbed universe is a straightforward generalization of the treatment in Sect. $3.2 .2$ which led us to Eq. (3.39). Moreover, we have done the hard part already by computing the expressions for $d x^i / d t$ [Eq. (3.62)] and $d p^i / d t$ [Eq. (3.69)]. We simply specialize them to the case $m=0$, i.e. $E=p$. We can then write Eq. (3.33) as
\begin{aligned} \frac{d f}{d t}=& \frac{\partial f}{\partial t}+\frac{\partial f}{\partial x^i} \frac{\hat{p}^i}{a}(1-\Phi+\Psi)-\frac{\partial f}{\partial p}\left{[H+\dot{\Phi}] p+\frac{1}{a} p^i \Psi_{, i}\right} \ &+\frac{\partial f}{\partial \hat{p}^i} \frac{1}{a}\left[(\Phi-\Psi){, i}-\hat{p}^i \hat{p}^k(\Phi-\Psi){, k}\right] \end{aligned}
This is the complete, linear-order left-hand side of the Boltzmann equation for radiation. However, we can simplify it further by making use of our knowledge of the zeroth-order distribution function $f(\boldsymbol{x}, \boldsymbol{p}, t)$. In the homogeneous universe, this distribution is of the Bose-Einstein form Eq. (2.65). This equilibrium distribution obviously does not depend on

position $\boldsymbol{x}$, but it also does not depend on the direction of the momentum vector $\hat{\boldsymbol{p}}$ since it is isotropic. We now make the ansatz that the deviations from the equilibrium distribution of radiation in the inhomogeneous universe are of the same order as the spacetime perturbations $\Phi, \Psi$. We will see in subsequent chapters that this ansatz not only makes our life much easier, but is indeed valid.

With this working assumption, we can immediately drop the last term, $\propto \partial f / \partial \hat{p}^i$, in Eq. (3.73). Recall that $\partial f / \partial \hat{p}^i$ is nonzero only if we consider a perturbation to the zeroth order $f$; i.e., it is a first-order term. But so is the term which multiplies it. So we can neglect it.

Further, it is easy to see that the potentials in the second term $\propto \partial f / \partial x^i$ in Eq. (3.73) are higher order as well, because they multiply $\partial f / \partial x^i$ which is a first-order term (again, the zeroth-order distribution function does not depend on position). We finally obtain the Boltzmann equation for radiation consistently expanded to linear order:
$$\frac{d f}{d t}=\frac{\partial f}{\partial t}+\frac{\hat{p}^i}{a} \frac{\partial f}{\partial x^i}-\left[H+\dot{\Phi}+\frac{1}{a} \hat{p}^i \frac{\partial \Psi}{\partial x^i}\right] p \frac{\partial f}{\partial p} .$$
Eq. (3.74) will lead us directly to the equations governing CMB anisotropies.

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|测地方程

$$g_{\mu \nu} P^\mu P^v=-(1+2 \Psi)\left(P^0\right)^2+p^2=-m^2,$$

$$p^2 \equiv g_{i j} P^i P^j \text {. }$$

$$P^0=\frac{E}{\sqrt{1+2 \Psi}}=E(1-\Psi) .$$ 消除$P^\mu$的时间成分

$$P^\mu=\left[E(1-\Psi), p^i \frac{1-\Phi}{a}\right] .$$

$$p^i=p \hat{p}^i \quad \text { where } \quad \hat{p}^i=\hat{p}i$$是一个满足$\delta{i j} \hat{p}^i \hat{p}^j=1$的单位向量。Eq.(3.60)允许我们剔除$P^0$和$P^i$，取而代之的是$E(p), p$，动量的大小，以及它们发生时的$\hat{p}^i$。此外，将它们代入式(3.20)，得到存在度规摄动(见练习$3.12$)时能量动量张量的分布函数表达式，这是我们以后需要的

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|辐射的无碰撞玻尔兹曼方程

\begin{aligned} \frac{d f}{d t}=& \frac{\partial f}{\partial t}+\frac{\partial f}{\partial x^i} \frac{\hat{p}^i}{a}(1-\Phi+\Psi)-\frac{\partial f}{\partial p}\left{[H+\dot{\Phi}] p+\frac{1}{a} p^i \Psi_{, i}\right} \ &+\frac{\partial f}{\partial \hat{p}^i} \frac{1}{a}\left[(\Phi-\Psi){, i}-\hat{p}^i \hat{p}^k(\Phi-\Psi){, k}\right] \end{aligned}

$$\frac{d f}{d t}=\frac{\partial f}{\partial t}+\frac{\hat{p}^i}{a} \frac{\partial f}{\partial x^i}-\left[H+\dot{\Phi}+\frac{1}{a} \hat{p}^i \frac{\partial \Psi}{\partial x^i}\right] p \frac{\partial f}{\partial p} .$$
Eq。(3.74)将直接引导我们得到控制CMB各向异性的方程

## 有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

## MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|PHYC90009

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写宇宙学cosmology方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写宇宙学cosmology代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写宇宙学cosmology相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|Collision terms

The effect of direct particle interactions is, in the Boltzmann realm, referred to as “collisions.” Collisions include scattering as well as pair creation, annihilation, and particle decay. A common type of process is a reaction where particles of type 1 and 2 interact to form particles of type 3 and 4 :
$$(1)p+(2)_q \longleftrightarrow(3){p^{\prime}}+(4)_{q^{\prime}},$$
where the subscripts indicate momenta. Note that this includes scattering of electrons and photons for example, if we choose $(1)=(3)=\left(e^{-}\right)$and $(2)=(4)=(\gamma)$; or annihilation, if we choose $(1)=\left(e^{-}\right),(2)=\left(e^{+}\right)$and $(3)=(4)=(\gamma)$. Moreover, all microscopic physical processes conserve momentum and energy:
$$\boldsymbol{p}+\boldsymbol{q}=\boldsymbol{p}^{\prime}+\boldsymbol{q}^{\prime} ; \quad E_1(\boldsymbol{p})+E_2(\boldsymbol{q})=E_3\left(\boldsymbol{p}^{\prime}\right)+E_4\left(\boldsymbol{q}^{\prime}\right),$$
where $E_s(p)=\sqrt{p^2+m_s^2}$ denotes the energy-momentum relation for particle $s$ [Eq. (3.29)]. Each type of particle has its respective distribution function $f_s(x, p, t), s=1,2,3,4$. Often in cosmology, different states (e.g. spin) have the same distribution function. So, instead of following them with separate functions, we will assign appropriate statistical weights $g_s$.
How does the reaction Eq. (3.44) affect the evolution of the distribution functions $f_s$ of the particles involved? First, we are dealing with a local interaction in space and time, so all the distribution functions are evaluated at $(\boldsymbol{x}, t)$, and we only need to determine the momentum arguments. For $f_1(\boldsymbol{x}, \boldsymbol{p}, t)$, for example, Eq. (3.44) means that we have to subtract the particles of type 1 that get scattered away from momentum $p$ by the forward reaction, and add the particles of type 1 that get scattered to momentum $p$ by the reverse reaction (Fig. 3.3). Therefore we must sum over all other momenta $\left(\boldsymbol{q}, \boldsymbol{q}^{\prime}, \boldsymbol{p}^{\prime}\right)$ which affect $f_1(\boldsymbol{p})$.

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|Perturbed spacetime

To begin, we must specify the form of the metric, accounting for perturbations around the smooth universe described by Eq. (2.12). Whereas the smooth universe is characterized by a single function, $a(t)$, which depends only on time and not on space, the perturbed universe requires two more functions, $\Psi$ and $\Phi$, both of which depend on space and time. In terms of these, the metric can be written as
\begin{aligned} &g_{00}(\boldsymbol{x}, t)=-1-2 \Psi(\boldsymbol{x}, t) \ &g_{0 i}(\boldsymbol{x}, t)=0 \ &g_{i j}(\boldsymbol{x}, t)=a^2(t) \delta_{i j}[1+2 \Phi(\boldsymbol{x}, t)] \end{aligned}
In the absence of $\Psi$ and $\Phi$, Eq. (3.49) is simply the FLRW metric of the zeroth-order homogeneous, Euclidean cosmology. Conversely, in the absence of expansion $(a(t)=1)$ this metric describes a weak gravitational field. The perturbations to the metric are $\Psi$, which corresponds to the Newtonian potential and governs the motion of slow-moving (nonrelativistic) bodies; and $\Phi$, the perturbation to the spatial curvature which, from Eq. (3.49), can also be interpreted as a local perturbation to the scale factor: $a(t) \rightarrow a(\boldsymbol{x}, t)=a(t) \sqrt{1+2 \Phi(\boldsymbol{x}, t)}$. In general, there is a tight relation between $\Phi$ and $\Psi$, as we will see in later chapters.

The typical magnitude of metric perturbations $\Psi, \Phi$ in our universe is less than $10^{-4}$. For this reason, it is an excellent approximation to work at linear order in these quantities. This means that we neglect all terms that are quadratic or of higher order in them. We will work under this approximation, which greatly simplifies the calculations, throughout the entire book.

There are two technical points about the metric in Eq. (3.49) that you do not need to worry about for most of this book, but which nonetheless are important to be aware of. We will cover these issues in Ch. 6, when we study gravity in the inhomogeneous universe in more detail. First, one can break up perturbations into those behaving as scalars, vectors, and tensors under a transformation from one 3D spatial coordinate system to another. Eq. (3.49) contains only scalar perturbations. On the other hand, tensor perturbations correspond to gravitational waves, which we know to exist. To take these into account, $g_{\mu v}$ requires other functions besides $\Psi$ and $\Phi$. For now we focus solely on the scalar perturbations; these are by far the most important ones for the origin and evolution of structure in the universe.

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|碰撞条款

$$(1)p+(2)q \longleftrightarrow(3){p^{\prime}}+(4){q^{\prime}},$$
，其中下标表示动量。注意，这包括电子和光子的散射，例如，如果我们选择$(1)=(3)=\left(e^{-}\right)$和$(2)=(4)=(\gamma)$;或者湮灭，如果我们选择$(1)=\left(e^{-}\right),(2)=\left(e^{+}\right)$和$(3)=(4)=(\gamma)$。此外，所有微观物理过程都保存动量和能量:
$$\boldsymbol{p}+\boldsymbol{q}=\boldsymbol{p}^{\prime}+\boldsymbol{q}^{\prime} ; \quad E_1(\boldsymbol{p})+E_2(\boldsymbol{q})=E_3\left(\boldsymbol{p}^{\prime}\right)+E_4\left(\boldsymbol{q}^{\prime}\right),$$

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|摄动时空

\begin{aligned} &g_{00}(\boldsymbol{x}, t)=-1-2 \Psi(\boldsymbol{x}, t) \ &g_{0 i}(\boldsymbol{x}, t)=0 \ &g_{i j}(\boldsymbol{x}, t)=a^2(t) \delta_{i j}[1+2 \Phi(\boldsymbol{x}, t)] \end{aligned}

## 有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

## MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|PHYS3080

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写宇宙学cosmology方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写宇宙学cosmology代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写宇宙学cosmology相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|Structure in the universe

The existence of structure in the universe was known long before the detection of CMB anisotropies: various efforts to map out the distribution of galaxies in the local universe clearly showed that they are not distributed homogeneously. The number of galaxies and volume covered by such surveys has grown exponentially. Two surveys in particular broke new ground: the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS; Fig. 1.8) and the Two Degree Field Galaxy Redshift Survey (2dF), which between them compiled the redshifts of, and hence the distances to, over a million galaxies. Projects over the ensuing decades have and will provide deeper and more detailed maps than these ground-breaking surveys, by orders of magnitude.

The galaxies in Fig. $1.8$ are clearly not distributed randomly: the universe has structure on large scales. To understand this structure, we must develop the tools to study perturbations around the smooth background. We will see that this is straightforward in theory, as long as the perturbations remain small. To compare theory with observations, we must thus try to avoid regimes that cannot be described by small perturbations. As an extreme example, we can never hope to understand cosmology by carefully examining rock formations on Earth. The intermediate steps-collapse of matter into a galaxy; star formation; planet formation; geology; etc. – are much too complicated to allow comparison between linear theory and observations. In fact, perturbations to the matter on small scales (less than about $10 \mathrm{Mpc}$ ) have become large in the late universe; that is, the fractional density fluctuations on these scales are not small, but comparable to or larger than unity. We say that these scales have grown nonlinear. On the other hand, large-scale perturbations are still small (quasi-linear). So they have been processed much less than the small-scale structure. Similarly, anisotropies in the CMB are small because they originated at early times and the photons that we observe from the CMB do not clump on their way to us. Because of this, the best ways to learn about the evolution of structure and to compare theory with observations are to look at anisotropies in the $\mathrm{CMB}$ and at large-scale structure (LSS), i.e. how galaxies and matter are distributed on large scales. However, we will learn in Chs. 12-13 that valuable cosmological information can also be extracted from smaller, nonlinear scales provided we choose our observables wisely.

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|Standard Model of particle physics

The Standard Model of particle physics describes the known fundamental particles in nature and how they interact. The particles can be divided into two classes: spin-1/2 fermions and integer-spin bosons.
Fermions are the constituents of matter: the quarks, out of which baryons are built, and the leptons such as electrons and neutrinos. There are three generations with two quarks each for a total of six quarks, denoted $u, d ; s, c ; b, t$. Each generation of quarks is associated with a pair of leptons. For example, the $u, d$ pair is associated with the electron and its neutrino: $e^{-}, v_e$. The other lepton pairs are $\mu^{-}, v_\mu$ and $\tau^{-}, v_\tau$. The vast majority of matter in the universe is made up of the first generation, with the exception of neutrinos, which are mixed between the different generations. Unlike leptons, quarks do not exist on their own, but they form bound states under the strong interaction. Baryons, the most important ones being the proton and neutron, are made out of three quarks. Mesons are composed of a quark-antiquark pair.
Bosons contain the spin-1 (vector) force carriers, the most famous of which is the photon which mediates the electromagnetic force. There are eight gluons (massless, like the photon) that mediate the strong force. The weak force, responsible for example for neutron decay, is mediated by three massive bosons: the $Z, W^{+}$and $W^{-}$. These force mediators are complemented with the spin-0 (scalar) Higgs boson. The Higgs couples to all massive fermions as well as the $W$ and $Z$ bosons. This coupling gives mass to the particles through the Higgs’ homogeneous background field value.

The Standard Model has remained largely intact since its inception, gaining more and more experimental verification every year. However, neutrino masses are now a confirmed piece of physics beyond the Standard Model. Moreover, the evidence cosmologists have uncovered-that there is a need for dark matter, dark energy, and new physics leading to inflation-clearly shows that the Standard Model is not the final word in particle physics.

## 有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

## MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|PHYC90009

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写宇宙学cosmology方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写宇宙学cosmology代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写宇宙学cosmology相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|Big Bang nucleosynthesis

Armed with an understanding of the evolution of the scale factor and the densities of the constituents in the universe, we can extrapolate backwards to explore phenomena at early times. When the universe was much hotter and denser, and the temperature was of order $1 \mathrm{MeV} / k_{\mathrm{B}}$, there were no neutral atoms or even bound nuclei. The vast amounts of highenergy radiation in such a hot environment ensured that any atom or nucleus produced would be immediately destroyed by a high-energy photon. As the universe cooled well below typical nuclear binding energies, light elements began to form in a process known as Big Bang Nucleosynthesis ( $B B N$ ). Knowing the conditions of the early universe and the relevant nuclear cross-sections, we can calculate the expected primordial abundances of all the elements (Ch. 4).

Fig. 1.6 shows the BBN predictions for the abundances of helium and deuterium as a function of the mean baryon density, essentially the density of ordinary matter (Sect. 2.4) in the universe, in units of the critical density. The predicted abundances, in particular that of deuterium, which we will explore in detail in Ch. 4, depend on the density of protons and neutrons at the time of nucleosynthesis. The combined proton plus neutron density is equal to the baryon density since both protons and neutrons have baryon number one and these are the only baryons around at the time.

The horizontal lines in Fig. $1.6$ show the current measurements of the light element abundances. The deuterium abundance is measured in the intergalactic medium at high redshifts by looking for a subtle absorption feature in the spectrum of distant quasars (see Burles and Tytler, 1998; Cooke et al., 2018 and Exercise 1.3). These measurements of the abundances, combined with BBN calculations, give us a way of measuring the baryon density in the universe, constraining ordinary matter to contribute at most $5 \%$ of the critical density (note that the $x$-axis in Fig. $1.6$ is the baryon density divided by the critical density, but multiplied by $h^2 \simeq 0.5$ ). Since the total matter density today is significantly larger than this-as we will see throughout the book-nucleosynthesis provides a compelling argument for matter that is comprised of neither protons or neutrons. This new type of matter has been dubbed dark matter because it apparently does not emit light. One of the central questions in physics now is: “What is the Dark Matter?”

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|The cosmic microwave background

Another phenomenon that falls out of energetics and a qualitative understanding of the evolution of the universe is the origin of the CMB. When the temperature of the radiation was of order $10^4 \mathrm{~K}$ (corresponding to energies of order an $\mathrm{eV}$ ), free electrons and protons combined to form neutral hydrogen. Before then, any hydrogen produced was quickly ionized by energetic photons. After that epoch, at $z \simeq 1100$, the photons that comprise the CMB ceased interacting with any particles and traveled freely through space. When we observe them today, we are thus looking at messengers from an early moment in the universe’s history. They are therefore the most powerful probes of the early universe. We will spend an inordinate amount of time in this book working through the details of what happened to the photons before they last scattered off of free electrons, and also developing the mathematics of the free-streaming process since then. Among many other aspects, we will understand how the CMB constrains the baryon density independently, and in agreement with $\mathrm{BBN}$ as shown in Fig. 1.6, providing a ringing confirmation of the concordance model.

For now, we are only concerned with the crucial fact that the interactions of photons with electrons before last scattering ensured that the photons were in equilibrium. That is, they should have a black-body spectrum. The specific intensity of a gas of photons with a black-body spectrum is
$$I_v=\frac{4 \pi \hbar v^3 / c^2}{\exp \left[2 \pi \hbar v / k_{\mathrm{R}} T\right]-1} .$$
Fig. $1.7$ shows the remarkable agreement between this prediction (see Exercise 1.4) of Big Bang cosmology and the observations by the FIRAS instrument aboard the COBE satellite. In fact, the CMB provides the best black-body spectrum ever measured. We have been told ${ }^2$ that detection of the $3 \mathrm{~K}$ background by Penzias and Wilson in the mid-1960s was sufficient evidence to decide the controversy in favor of the Big Bang over the Steady State universe, an alternative scenario without any expansion. Penzias and Wilson, though, measured the radiation at just one wavelength. If even their one-wavelength result was enough to tip the scales, the current data depicted in Fig. $1.7$ should send skeptics from the pages of physics journals to the far reaches of radical internet chat groups.

The most important fact we learned from our first 25 years of surveying the CMB was that the early universe was very smooth. No anisotropies were detected in the CMB. This period, while undoubtedly frustrating for observers searching for anisotropies, solidified the view of a smooth Big Bang. The satellite mission COBE discovered anisotropies in the $\mathrm{CMB}$ in 1992, indicating that the early universe was not completely smooth. There were small perturbations in the cosmic plasma, with fractional temperature fluctuations of order $10^{-5}$. By now, these small fluctuations have been mapped with exquisite precision, and the state of the art is to look for even more subtle effects such as CMB polarization and the effect of the intervening matter distribution through gravitational lensing. To understand all of these effects, we must clearly go beyond the smooth background universe and look at deviations from smoothness, or inhomogeneities. Inhomogeneities in the universe are often simply called structure.

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|大爆炸核合成

1.6显示了BBN对氦和氘丰度的预测作为平均重子密度的函数，本质上是宇宙中普通物质的密度(第2.4节)，以临界密度为单位。预测的丰度，特别是氘的丰度，我们将在第4章中详细探讨，取决于核合成时质子和中子的密度。质子和中子的密度之和等于重子密度，因为质子和中子都有1号重子，而这些是当时周围唯一的重子 图$1.6$中的水平线显示了当前对轻元素丰度的测量。通过在遥远类星体的光谱中寻找细微的吸收特征(见Burles和Tytler, 1998;Cooke等人，2018和练习1.3)。这些丰度的测量，结合BBN的计算，为我们提供了一种测量宇宙重子密度的方法，约束普通物质最多贡献$5 \%$的临界密度(注意，图$1.6$中的$x$轴是重子密度除以临界密度，但乘以$h^2 \simeq 0.5$)。由于现在物质的总密度远远大于这个——正如我们将在全书中看到的那样——核合成为既不是由质子也不是由中子组成的物质提供了一个令人信服的论据。这种新型物质被称为暗物质，因为它显然不发光。现在物理学的核心问题之一是:“暗物质是什么?”

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|宇宙微波背景

$$I_v=\frac{4 \pi \hbar v^3 / c^2}{\exp \left[2 \pi \hbar v / k_{\mathrm{R}} T\right]-1} .$$
$1.7$显示了大爆炸宇宙学的这一预测(见练习1.4)与COBE卫星上的FIRAS仪器的观测结果之间的显著一致。事实上，CMB提供了迄今为止测量过的最好的黑体光谱。我们被告知${ }^2$，彭齐亚斯和威尔逊在20世纪60年代中期对$3 \mathrm{~K}$背景的探测，足以证明这场争论支持大爆炸而不是稳定状态宇宙，稳定状态宇宙是没有任何膨胀的另一种情况。不过，彭齐亚斯和威尔逊只测量了一种波长的辐射。如果他们的单波长结果就足以扭转这一趋势，那么图$1.7$中所描述的当前数据应该会把怀疑论者从物理期刊的页面送到激进的互联网聊天群中去

## 有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

## MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|ASTR3002

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写宇宙学cosmology方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写宇宙学cosmology代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写宇宙学cosmology相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|A nutshell history of the universe

We have solid evidence that the universe is expanding. This means that early in its history the distance between us and distant galaxies was smaller than it is today. It is convenient to describe this effect by introducing the scale factor $a$, whose present value is set to 1 by convention. At earlier times, $a$ was smaller than it is today. We can imagine placing a grid in space as in Fig. 1.1 which expands uniformly as time evolves. Points on the grid, which correspond to observers at rest, maintain their coordinates, so the comoving distance between two points-which just measures the difference between coordinates, and can be obtained by counting grid cells as indicated in Fig. 1.1-remains constant. However, the physical distance is proportional to the scale factor, and the physical distance does evolve with time.
A directly related effect is that the physical wavelength of light emitted from a distant object is stretched out proportionally to the scale factor, so that the observed wavelength is larger than the one at which the light was emitted. It is convenient to define this stretching factor as the redshift $z$ :
$$1+z \equiv \frac{\lambda_{\mathrm{obs}}}{\lambda_{\text {emit }}}=\frac{a_{\mathrm{obs}}}{a_{\text {emit }}}=\frac{1}{a_{\text {emit }}} .$$
In addition to the scale factor and its evolution, the smooth universe is characterized by one other parameter, its geometry. There are three possibilities: Euclidean, open, or closed universes. These different possibilities are best understood by considering two freely traveling particles which start their journeys moving parallel to each other. In a Euclidean universe, often also called a “flat universe,” the particles behave as Euclid himself expected them to: their trajectories remain parallel as long as they travel freely. If the universe is closed, the initially parallel particles gradually converge, just as in the case of the 2 -sphere all lines of constant longitude meet at the North and South Poles. The analogy of a closed universe to the surface of a sphere runs even deeper: both are spaces of constant positive curvature, the former in three spatial dimensions and the latter in two. Finally, in an open universe, the initially parallel paths diverge, as would two marbles rolling off a saddle.

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|The Hubble diagram

If the universe is expanding as depicted in Fig. $1.1$, then galaxies should be moving away from each other. We should therefore see galaxies receding from us. Hubble (1929) first found that distant galaxies are in fact all apparently receding from us, i.e. redshifted. He also noticed the trend that the velocity increases with distance. This is exactly what we expect in an expanding universe, for the physical distance between two galaxies is $d=a x$ where $x$ is the comoving distance. ${ }^1$ In the absence of any comoving motion, $\dot{x} \equiv d x / d t=0$ (no peculiar velocity), the relative velocity $v$ is therefore equal to
$$v=\frac{d}{d t}(a x)=\dot{a} x=H_0 d \quad(v \ll c),$$
where overdots indicate derivatives with respect to time $t$. Therefore, the apparent velocity should increase linearly with distance (at least at low redshift) with a slope given by $H_0$, the Hubble constant. Eq. (1.8) is known as the Hubble-Lemaitre law. The value of the constant is simply determined by measuring the slope of the line in the Hubble diagram shown in Fig. 1.5.

In the next chapter, we will generalize the distance-redshift relation to larger distances, where Eq. (1.8) breaks down. Instead of recession velocities, this more rigorous derivation will be based on the stretching of the wavelength of light encoded in Eq. (1.1). For now, let us just point out that the distance-redshift relation depends on the energy content of the universe. Data from a variety of sources point to a current best-fit scenario that is Euclidean and contains about $70 \%$ of the energy in the form of a cosmological constant, or some other form of dark energy. This now forms the concordance cosmology that will be our working model throughout.

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|宇宙的概略历史

$$1+z \equiv \frac{\lambda_{\mathrm{obs}}}{\lambda_{\text {emit }}}=\frac{a_{\mathrm{obs}}}{a_{\text {emit }}}=\frac{1}{a_{\text {emit }}} .$$

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|哈勃图

$$v=\frac{d}{d t}(a x)=\dot{a} x=H_0 d \quad(v \ll c),$$
，其中overdots表示对时间$t$的导数。因此，视速度应该随距离线性增加(至少在低红移时)，斜率为$H_0$，哈勃常数。式(1.8)被称为哈勃-勒梅特定律。这个常数的值可以通过测量哈勃图中直线的斜率来确定，如图1.5所示

## 有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

## MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|ASTR3002

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写宇宙学cosmology方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写宇宙学cosmology代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写宇宙学cosmology相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|Robertson-Walker metric

In this problem, you will be guided through an alternative (more rigorous) derivation of the Robertson-Walker metric.

1. Explain why the most general metric for a homogeneous and isotropic universe is
$$\mathrm{d} s^{2}=-\mathrm{d} t^{2}+a^{2}(t) \gamma_{i j}(\mathbf{x}) \mathrm{d} x^{i} \mathrm{~d} x^{j},$$
where we have set $c=1$. In particular, explain why $g_{00}=-1$ and $g_{0 i}=0$.
2. Assume isotropy of the universe about a fixed point $r=0$. Show that the most general spatial metric takes the form
$$\mathrm{d} \ell^{2} \equiv \gamma_{i j} \mathrm{~d} x^{i} \mathrm{~d} x^{j}=e^{2 \alpha(r)} \mathrm{d} r^{2}+r^{2} \mathrm{~d} \Omega^{2}$$
where $\mathrm{d} \Omega^{2} \equiv \mathrm{d} \theta^{2}+\sin ^{2} \theta \mathrm{d} \phi^{2}$. Show that the scalar curvature associated with this metric is
$$R_{(3)}=\frac{2}{r^{2}}\left[1-\frac{d}{d r}\left(r e^{-2 \alpha(r)}\right)\right] .$$
Warning: this part is a bit tedious.

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|Geodesics from a simple Lagrangian

In Appendix A, we derive the geodesics equation from the relativistic action of a point particle. In this problem, you will discover a simpler way to obtain the same result.

1. Consider the Lagrangian
$$\mathcal{L} \equiv-g_{\mu \nu} \dot{x}^{\mu} \dot{x}^{\nu}$$
where $\dot{x}^{\mu} \equiv d x^{\mu} / d \lambda$, for a general parameter $\lambda$. Show that the EulerLagrange equation
$$\frac{d}{d \lambda}\left(\frac{\partial \mathcal{L}}{\partial \dot{x}^{\mu}}\right)=\frac{\partial \mathcal{L}}{\partial x^{\mu}}$$
2. If $\mathcal{L}$ has no explicit dependence on $\lambda$, then $\partial \mathcal{L} / \partial \lambda=0$. Show that this implies that the “Hamiltonian” is a constant along the geodesics:
$$\mathcal{H} \equiv \mathcal{L}-\frac{\partial \mathcal{L}}{\partial \dot{x}^{\mu}} \dot{x}^{\mu}=g_{\mu \nu} \dot{x}^{\mu} \dot{x}^{\nu} \text {. }$$
For a massive particle, we set $\lambda$ equal to the proper time $\tau$, and the constraint becomes $g_{\mu \nu} \dot{x}^{\mu} \dot{x}^{\nu}=-1$. A nice feature of the Lagrangian method described in this problem is that is also applies to massless particles, in which case we must have $g_{\mu \nu} \dot{x}^{\mu} \dot{x}^{\nu}=0$.

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|Robertson-Walker metric

1. 解释为什么均匀和各向同性宇宙的最通用度量是
$$\mathrm{d} s^{2}=-\mathrm{d} t^{2}+a^{2}(t) \gamma_{i j}(\mathbf{x}) \mathrm{d} x^{i} \mathrm{~d} x^{j},$$
我们设置的地方 $c=1$. 特别说明原因 $g_{00}=-1$ 和 $g_{0 i}=0$.
2. 假设宇宙关于一个固定点的各向同性 $r=0$. 证明最一般的空间度量采用以下形式
$$\mathrm{d} \ell^{2} \equiv \gamma_{i j} \mathrm{~d} x^{i} \mathrm{~d} x^{j}=e^{2 \alpha(r)} \mathrm{d} r^{2}+r^{2} \mathrm{~d} \Omega^{2}$$
在哪里 $\mathrm{d} \Omega^{2} \equiv \mathrm{d} \theta^{2}+\sin ^{2} \theta \mathrm{d} \phi^{2}$. 表明与该度量相关的标量曲率是
$$R_{(3)}=\frac{2}{r^{2}}\left[1-\frac{d}{d r}\left(r e^{-2 \alpha(r)}\right)\right] .$$
警告：这部分有点乏味。

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|Geodesics from a simple Lagrangian

1. 考虑拉格朗日
$$\mathcal{L} \equiv-g_{\mu \nu} \dot{x}^{\mu} \dot{x}^{\nu}$$
在哪里 $\dot{x}^{\mu} \equiv d x^{\mu} / d \lambda$, 对于一般参数 $\lambda$. 证明 EulerLagrange 方程
$$\frac{d}{d \lambda}\left(\frac{\partial \mathcal{L}}{\partial \dot{x}^{\mu}}\right)=\frac{\partial \mathcal{L}}{\partial x^{\mu}}$$
导致测地线方程。
2. 如果 $\mathcal{L}$ 没有明确的依赖 $\lambda$ ， 然后 $\partial \mathcal{L} / \partial \lambda=0$. 证明这意味着“哈密顿”是沿测地线的常数:
$$\mathcal{H} \equiv \mathcal{L}-\frac{\partial \mathcal{L}}{\partial \dot{x}^{\mu}} \dot{x}^{\mu}=g_{\mu \nu} \dot{x}^{\mu} \dot{x}^{\nu}$$
对于一个大质量粒子，我们设置 $\lambda$ 等于适当的时间 $\tau$ ，约束变为 $g_{\mu \nu} \dot{x}^{\mu} \dot{x}^{\nu}=-1$. 这个问题中描述的拉格朗 日方法的一个很好的特点是它也适用于无质量粒子，在这种情况下，我们必须有 $g_{\mu \nu} \dot{x}^{\mu} \dot{x}^{\nu}=0$.

## 有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

## MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|PHYS3080

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写宇宙学cosmology方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写宇宙学cosmology代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写宇宙学cosmology相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|Summary

In this chapter, we have studied the geometry and dynamics of the universe, as well as the propagation of particles within it. We showed that a homogeneous and isotropic spacetime is described by the Robertson-Walker metric
$$\mathrm{d} s^{2}=-c^{2} \mathrm{~d} t^{2}+a^{2}(t)\left[\frac{\mathrm{d} r^{2}}{1-k r^{2} / R_{0}^{2}}+r^{2}\left(\mathrm{~d} \theta^{2}+\sin ^{2} \theta \mathrm{d} \phi^{2}\right)\right]$$
where $k=0,+1,-1$ for flat, spherical and hyperbolic spatial slices with curvature radius $R_{0}$. The light of distant galaxies is stretched by the expansion of the universe, with the fractional shift in the wavelength given by
$$z \equiv \frac{\lambda_{\mathrm{obs}}-\lambda_{\mathrm{em}}}{\lambda_{\mathrm{em}}}=\frac{a\left(t_{\mathrm{obs}}\right)}{a\left(t_{\mathrm{em}}\right)}-1 .$$
The physical velocities of galaxies receive contributions both from the expansion and their perwliar motinns, $\mathbf{v}{\text {phys }}=H \mathbf{r}{\text {phys }}+\mathbf{v}_{\text {pers }}$ where $H \equiv \dot{a} / a$ is the Huhhle parameter.

The evolution of the scale factor $a(t)$ is determined by the Friedmann equation
$$\left(\frac{\dot{a}}{a}\right)^{2}=\frac{8 \pi G}{3} \rho-\frac{k c^{2}}{a^{2} R_{0}^{2}}+\frac{\Lambda c^{2}}{3},$$
where $\rho$ is the total energy density of the universe.

The material in this chapter is treated in every cosmology textbook. My derivation of the FRW metric and the energy-momentum tensor is based on a similar analysis in Weinberg’s book [17]. My treatment of exact solutions to the Friedmann equations was inspired by Tong’s lecture notes $[18]$ and Ryden’s book [19]. A nice review of the various distance measures used in cosmology is [20]. Common misconceptions about the expansion of the universe are treated carefully in [21].

The cosmological constant problem is subtle and sometimes not described very accurately. The classic review on the cosmological constant problem is by Weinberg [22]. Nice descriptions can also be found in the article by Polchinski [23], the review by Carroll [24] and the lecture notes by Bousso [25], Burgess [26] and Padilla [27].

The discovery of the expanding universe has an interesting history. It is fascinating to read the original papers through the lens of our modern understanding of cosmology. On the website for this book, I describe some of the most important developments. This is not meant to be a rigorous history of cosmology (for this see e.g. $[28,29])$, but only a pointer to some classic papers.

Students who haven’t had a course in GR before may have found parts of this chapter challenging. Fortunately, there is an abundance of good resources to learn GR. Appendix A of this book contains a brief introduction to the main ideas. More details can be found in many excellent textbooks (e.g. [30-32]) and lecture notes (e.g. $[33-35])$

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|Summary

$$\mathrm{d} s^{2}=-c^{2} \mathrm{~d} t^{2}+a^{2}(t)\left[\frac{\mathrm{d} r^{2}}{1-k r^{2} / R_{0}^{2}}+r^{2}\left(\mathrm{~d} \theta^{2}+\sin ^{2} \theta \mathrm{d} \phi^{2}\right)\right]$$

$$z \equiv \frac{\lambda_{\mathrm{obs}}-\lambda_{\mathrm{em}}}{\lambda_{\mathrm{em}}}=\frac{a\left(t_{\mathrm{obs}}\right)}{a\left(t_{\mathrm{em}}\right)}-1 .$$

## 有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

## MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|PHYC90009

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写宇宙学cosmology方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写宇宙学cosmology代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写宇宙学cosmology相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|Our Universe

Our universe is simple, but strange [14]. Simple, because it can be characterized by only a handful of parameters. Strange, because the physical interpretation of many of these parameters remains puzzling. In the following, I will give a short description of the key parameters that shape our universe and their measured values (see Table 2.1). In the rest of this book, you will learn where this knowledge comes from.

One of the most precisely measured quantities is the photon density. The COBE satellite found the temperature of the CMB blackbody spectrum to be [15]
$$T_{0}=(2.7260 \pm 0.0013) \mathrm{K} .$$
In Chapter 3, you will learn how this temperature relates to the number density and energy density of the relic photons:
\begin{aligned} &n_{\gamma, 0}=0.24 \times\left(\frac{k_{\mathrm{B}} T_{0}}{\hbar c}\right)^{3} \approx 410 \text { photons } \mathrm{cm}^{-3}, \ &\rho_{\gamma, 0}=0.66 \times \frac{\left(k_{\mathrm{B}} T_{0}\right)^{4}}{(\hbar c)^{3}} \approx 4.6 \times 10^{-34} \mathrm{~g} \mathrm{~cm}^{-3} \end{aligned}
where $k_{\mathrm{B}}$ is the Boltzmann constant and $\hbar$ is the reduced Planck constant. In terms of the critical density, the energy density of the photons is
$$\Omega_{\gamma} \approx 5.35 \times 10^{-5} .$$
You will also learn in the next chapter that the universe is filled with a background of relic neutrinos. As long as the neutrinos are relativistic, their energy density is $68 \%$ that of the relic photons. Extrapolating this to the present time gives $\Omega_{\nu} \approx$ $3.64 \times 10^{-5}$, so that the total radiation density is
$$\Omega_{r}=8.99 \times 10^{-5} .$$

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|The Expanding Universe

Most of the matter in the universe is in the form of dark matter. Its gravitational effects are observed in the dynamics of galaxies and clusters of galaxies, as well as in the formation of the large-scale structure of the universe. Moreover, the pattern of CMB fluctuations depends sensitively on the amount of dark matter. The inferred dark matter density today is
$$\Omega_{c} \approx 0.27$$
where the subscript $(c)$ indicates that we are assuming a “cold” form of dark matter with equation of state $w_{c} \approx 0$. The sum of the densities of baryons and dark matter gives the total matter density,
$$\Omega_{m} \approx 0.32$$
Going back in time, the radiation density becomes more and more important relative to the matter density. The scale factor at matter-radiation equality is
$$a_{\text {eq }}=\frac{\Omega_{r}}{\Omega_{m}}=2.9 \times 10^{-4} \text {, }$$
where we have used the extrapolated radiation density defined in (2.184). The corresponding redshift at matter-radiation equality is $z_{\text {eq }} \approx 3400$.

Most of the energy density of the universe today is in the form of dark energy. This energy causes the present expansion of the universe to accelerate, as inferred from the apparent brightnesses of distant supernovae. These supernovae appear fainter than expected in a pure matter universe (see Fig. 2.6). In Section 2.2.3, I explained how type Ia supernovae are used as standard candles to obtain measurements of their luminosity distances as a function of their redshifts. A compilation of such measurements is shown in Fig. 2.15. ${ }^{8}$ Assuming a flat universe (as suggested by the CMB observations), this data can only be fit if the universe contains a significant amount of dark energy
$$\Omega_{\Lambda} \approx 0.68$$

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|Our Universe

$$T_{0}=(2.7260 \pm 0.0013) \mathrm{K} .$$

$$n_{\gamma, 0}=0.24 \times\left(\frac{k_{\mathrm{B}} T_{0}}{\hbar c}\right)^{3} \approx 410 \text { photons } \mathrm{cm}^{-3}, \quad \rho_{\gamma, 0}=0.66 \times \frac{\left(k_{\mathrm{B}} T_{0}\right)^{4}}{(\hbar c)^{3}} \approx 4.6 \times 10^{-34} \mathrm{~g} \mathrm{~cm}^{-3}$$

$$\Omega_{\gamma} \approx 5.35 \times 10^{-5} .$$

$$\Omega_{r}=8.99 \times 10^{-5} .$$

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|The Expanding Universe

$$\Omega_{c} \approx 0.27$$

$$\Omega_{m} \approx 0.32$$

$$a_{\mathrm{eq}}=\frac{\Omega_{r}}{\Omega_{m}}=2.9 \times 10^{-4},$$

$$\Omega_{\Lambda} \approx 0.68$$

## 有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

## MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|PHYS3080

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写宇宙学cosmology方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写宇宙学cosmology代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写宇宙学cosmology相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|The Expanding Universe

Our goal in this chapter is to derive, and then solve, the equations governing the evolution of the entire universe. This may seem like a daunting task. How can we hope to describe the long-term evolution of the cosmos when we have such a hard time just predicting the weather or the stability of the Solar System?

Fortunately, the coarse-grained properties of the universe are remarkably simple. While the distribution of galaxies is clumpy on small scales, it becomes more and more uniform on large scales. In particular, when averaged over sufficiently large distances (say larger than $100 \mathrm{Mpc}$ ), the universe looks isotropic (the same in all directions). Assuming that we don’t live at a special point in space-and that nobody else does either – the observed isotropy then implies that the universe is also homogeneous (the same at every point in space). This leads to a simple mathematical description of the universe because the spacetime geometry takes a very simple form.

Since a static universe filled with matter and energy is unstable, we expect the spacetime to be dynamical. Indeed, observations of the light from distant galaxies have shown that the universe is expanding. Running this expansion backwards in time, we predict that nearly 14 billion years ago our whole universe was in a hot dense state. The Big Bang theory describes what happened in this fireball, and how it evolved into the universe we see around us today. In Part I of this book, I will describe our modern understanding of this theory. In this chapter, we will study the geometry and dynamics of the homogeneous universe, while in the next chapter, we will discuss the many interesting events that occured in the hot Big Bang.
I will assume some familiarity with the basics of special relativity (at the level of manipulating spacetime tensors), but will introduce the necessary elements of general relativity (GR) as we go along. I will mostly state results in $\mathrm{GR}$ without derivation, which are then relatively easy to apply in the cosmological context. Although this plug-and-play approach loses some of the geometrical beauty of Einstein’s theory, it gets the job done and provides the fastest route to our explorations of cosmology. Further background on GR is given in Appendix A.

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|Spacetime and Relativity

I will assume that you have been introduced to the concept of a metric before. Just to remind you, the metric is an object that turns coordinate distances into physical distances. For example, in three-dimensional Euclidean space, the physical distance between two points separated by the infinitesimal coordinate distances $\mathrm{d} x, \mathrm{~d} y$ and $\mathrm{d} z$ is
$$\mathrm{d} \ell^{2}=\mathrm{d} x^{2}+\mathrm{d} y^{2}+\mathrm{d} z^{2}=\sum_{i, j=1}^{3} \delta_{i j} \mathrm{~d} x^{i} \mathrm{~d} x^{j},$$
where I have introduced the notation $\left(x^{1}, x^{2}, x^{3}\right)=(x, y, z)$. In this example, the metric is simply the Kronecker delta $\delta_{i j}=\operatorname{diag}(1,1,1)$. However, you also know that if we were to use spherical polar coordinates, the square of the physical distance would no longer be the sum of the squares of the coordinate distances. Instead, we would get
$$\mathrm{d} \ell^{2}=\mathrm{d} r^{2}+r^{2} \mathrm{~d} \theta^{2}+r^{2} \sin ^{2} \theta \mathrm{d} \phi^{2} \equiv \sum_{i, j=1}^{3} g_{i j} \mathrm{~d} x^{i} \mathrm{~d} x^{j},$$
where $\left(x^{1}, x^{2}, x^{3}\right)=(r, \theta, \phi)$. In this case, the metric has taken a less trivial form, namely $g_{i j}=\operatorname{diag}\left(1, r^{2}, r^{2} \sin ^{2} \theta\right)$. Observers using different coordinate systems won’t necessarily agree on the coordinate distances between two points, but they will always agree on the physical distance, $\mathrm{d} \ell$. We say that $\mathrm{d} \ell$ is an invariant. Hence, the metric turns observer-dependent coordinates into invariants.

A fundamental object in relativity is the spacetime metric. It turns observerdependent spacetime coordinates $x^{\mu}=\left(c t, x^{i}\right)$ into the invariant line element ${ }^{1}$
$$\mathrm{d} s^{2}=\sum_{\mu, \nu=0}^{3} g_{\mu \nu} \mathrm{d} x^{\mu} \mathrm{d} x^{\nu} \equiv g_{\mu \nu} \mathrm{d} x^{\mu} \mathrm{d} x^{\nu} .$$
In special relativity, the spacetime is Minkowski space, $\mathbb{R}^{1,3}$, whose line element is
$$\mathrm{d} s^{2}=-c^{2} \mathrm{~d} t^{2}+\delta_{i j} \mathrm{~d} x^{i} \mathrm{~d} x^{j},$$
1 Throughout this book, I will use Einstein’s summation convention where repeated indices are summed over. Our metric signature will be $(-,+,+,+)$. In this chapter, I will keep the speed of light explicit, but in the rest of the book I will use natural units with $c \equiv 1$.

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|Spacetime and Relativity

$$\mathrm{d} \ell^{2}=\mathrm{d} x^{2}+\mathrm{d} y^{2}+\mathrm{d} z^{2}=\sum_{i, j=1}^{3} \delta_{i j} \mathrm{~d} x^{i} \mathrm{~d} x^{j},$$

$\delta_{i j}=\operatorname{diag}(1,1,1)$. 但是，您也知道，如果我们使用球极坐标，物理距离的平方将不再是坐标距离的平方和。 相反，我们会得到
$$\mathrm{d} \ell^{2}=\mathrm{d} r^{2}+r^{2} \mathrm{~d} \theta^{2}+r^{2} \sin ^{2} \theta \mathrm{d} \phi^{2} \equiv \sum_{i, j=1}^{3} g_{i j} \mathrm{~d} x^{i} \mathrm{~d} x^{j}$$

$g_{i j}=\operatorname{diag}\left(1, r^{2}, r^{2} \sin ^{2} \theta\right)$. 使用不同坐标系的观察者不一定就两点之间的坐标距离达成一致，但他们总是会 就物理距离达成一致， $\mathrm{d} \ell$. 我们说 $\mathrm{d}$ 是一个不变量。因此，该度量将依赖于观察者的坐标转换为不变量。

$$\mathrm{d} s^{2}=\sum_{\mu, \nu=0}^{3} g_{\mu \nu} \mathrm{d} x^{\mu} \mathrm{d} x^{\nu} \equiv g_{\mu \nu} \mathrm{d} x^{\mu} \mathrm{d} x^{\nu} .$$

$$\mathrm{d} s^{2}=-c^{2} \mathrm{~d} t^{2}+\delta_{i j} \mathrm{~d} x^{i} \mathrm{~d} x^{j},$$
1 在本书中，我将使用爱因斯坦的求和约定，其中重复的索引被求和。我们的度量签名将是 $(-,+,+,+)$. 在本 章中，我将明确说明光速，但在本书的其余部分中，我将使用自然单位 $c \equiv 1$.

## 有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

## MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。