数学代写|密码学作业代写Cryptography & Cryptanalysis代考|CS6260

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数学代写|密码学作业代写Cryptography & Cryptanalysis代考|LWE and NTRU

The LWE problem and the NTRU problem have proven to be versatile building blocks for cryptographic applications [104, 218, 274, 493]. For both of these problems, there exist ring and matrix variants. More precisely, the original definition of NTRU is the ring variant [274] and the matrix variant is rarely considered whereas for LWE the original definition is the matrix variant [494] with a ring variant being defined later $[401,561]$. In this chapter, we generally treat the matrix variants since our focus is on lattice reduction for general lattices.

Definition $2.1$ (LWE [494]). Let $n, q$ be positive integers, $\chi$ be a probability distribution on $\mathbb{Z}$ and $\mathbf{s}$ be a uniformly random vector in $\mathbb{Z}q^n$. We denote by $L{\mathrm{s}, \chi}$ the probability distribution on $\mathbb{Z}q^n \times \mathbb{Z}_q$ obtained by choosing $\mathbf{a} \in \mathbb{Z}_q^n$ uniformly at random, choosing $e \in \mathbb{Z}$ according to $\chi$ and considering it in $\mathbb{Z}_q$, and returning $(\mathbf{a}, c)=(\mathbf{a},\langle\mathbf{a}, \mathbf{s}\rangle+e) \in \mathbb{Z}_q^n \times \mathbb{Z}_q$ Decision-LWE is the problem of deciding whether pairs (a, $c$ ) $\in \mathbb{Z}_q^n \times \mathbb{Z}_q$ are sampled according to $L{\mathrm{s}, \chi}$ or the uniform distribution on $\mathbb{Z}q^n \times \mathbb{Z}_q$. Search-LWE is the problem of recovering s from pairs $(\mathbf{a}, c)=(\mathbf{a},\langle\mathbf{a}, \mathbf{s}\rangle+e) \in$ $\mathbb{Z}_q^n \times \mathbb{Z}_q$ sampled according to $L{\mathrm{s}, \chi}$.

We note that the above definition puts no restriction on the number of samples, i.e., LWE is assumed to be secure for any polynomial number of samples. Further, since for many choices of $n, q, \chi$ solving Decision-LWE allows solving Search-LWE [105, 494] and vice versa, it is meaningful just to speak of the LWE problem (for those choices of parameters). By rewriting the system in systematic form [23], it can be shown that the LWE problem, where each component of the secret $\mathbf{s}$ is sampled from the error distribution $\chi$, is as secure as the problem for uniformly random secrets. LWE with such a secret, following the error distribution, is known as normal form LWE. We will consider normal form LWE in this chapter. Furthermore, in this note, the exact specification of the distribution $\chi$ will not matter, and we may simply specify an LWE instance by giving the standard deviation $\sigma$ of $\chi$. We will, furthermore, implicitly assume that $\chi$ is centred, i.e., has expectation 0 . We may also write LWE in matrix form as $\mathbf{A} \cdot \mathbf{s}+\mathbf{e} \equiv \mathbf{c} \bmod q$. The NTRU problem [274] is defined as follows.

Definition $2.2$ (NTRU [274]). Let $n, q$ be positive integers, $f, g \in \mathbb{Z}_q[x]$ be polynomials of degree $n$ sampled from some distribution $\chi$, subject to $f$ being invertible modulo a polynomial $\phi$ of degree $n$, and let $h=g / f \bmod (\phi, q)$. The NTRU problem is the problem of finding $f, g$ given $h$ (or any equivalent solution $\left(x^i \cdot f, x^i \cdot g\right)$ for some $\left.i \in \mathbb{Z}\right)$.

Concretely, the reader may think of $\phi=x^n+1$ when $n$ is a power of two and $\chi$ to be some distribution producing polynomials with small coefficients. The matrix variant considers $\mathbf{F}, \mathbf{G} \in \mathbb{Z}_q^{n \times n}$ such that $\mathbf{H}=\mathbf{G} \cdot \mathbf{F}^{-1} \bmod q$.

数学代写|密码学作业代写Cryptography & Cryptanalysis代考|Notation and Preliminaries

All vectors are denoted by bold lower case letters and are to be read as column vectors. Matrices are denoted by bold capital letters. We write a matrix $\mathbf{B}$ as $\mathbf{B}=\left(\mathbf{b}0, \ldots, \mathbf{b}{d-1}\right)$ where $\mathbf{b}i$ is the ith column vector of $\mathbf{B}$. If $\mathbf{B} \in \mathbb{R}^{m \times d}$ has fullcolumn rank $d$, the lattice $\Lambda$ generated by the basis $\mathbf{B}$ is denoted by $\Lambda(\mathbf{B})=$ $\left{\mathbf{B} \cdot \mathbf{x} \mid \mathbf{x} \in \mathbb{Z}^d\right}$. A lattice is $q$-ary if it contains $q \mathbb{Z}^d$ as a sublattice, e.g., $\left{\mathbf{x} \in \mathbb{Z}_q^d \mid\right.$ $\mathbf{x} \cdot \mathbf{A}=\mathbf{0}}$ for some $\mathbf{A} \subset \mathbb{Z}^{d \times d^{\prime}}$. We denote by $\left(\mathbf{b}_0^{\star}, \ldots, \mathbf{b}{d-1}^{\star}\right)$ the Gram-Schmidt (GS) orthogonalisation of the matrix $\left(\mathbf{b}0, \ldots, \mathbf{b}{d-1}\right)$. For $i \in{0, \ldots, d-1}$, we denote the orthogonal projection to the span of $\left(\mathbf{b}0, \ldots, \mathbf{b}{i-1}\right)$ by $\pi_i ; \pi_0$ denotes ‘no projection’, i.e., the identity. We write $\pi_{\mathrm{v}}$ for the projection orthogonal to the space spanned by $\mathbf{v}$. For $0 \leq i<j \leq d$, we denote by $\mathbf{B}{[i: j]}$ the local projected block $\left(\pi_i\left(\mathbf{b}_i\right), \ldots, \pi_i\left(\mathbf{b}{j-1}\right)\right)$, and when the basis is clear from context, by $\Lambda_{[i: j]}$ the lattice generated by $\mathbf{B}_{[i: j]}$. We write $\lg (\cdot)$ for the logarithm to base two.

The Euclidean norm of a vector $\mathbf{v}$ is denoted by $|\mathbf{v}|$. The volume (or determinant) of a lattice $\Lambda(\mathbf{B})$ is $\operatorname{vol}(\Lambda(\mathbf{B}))=\prod_i\left|\mathbf{b}_i^{\star}\right|$. It is an invariant of the lattice. The first minimum of a lattice $\Lambda$ is the norm of a shortest non-zero vector, denoted by $\lambda_1(\Lambda)$. We use the abbreviations $\operatorname{vol}(\mathbf{B})=\operatorname{vol}(\Lambda(\mathbf{B})$ ) and $\lambda_1(\mathbf{B})=\lambda_1(\Lambda(\mathbf{B}))$

The Hermite constant $\gamma_\beta$ is the square of the maximum norm of any shortest vector in all lattices of unit volume in dimension $\beta$ :
$$\gamma_\beta=\sup \left{\lambda_1^2(\Lambda) \mid \Lambda \in \mathbb{R}^\beta, \operatorname{vol}(\Lambda)=1\right} .$$
Minkowski’s theorem allows us to derive an upper bound $\gamma_\beta=O(\beta)$, and this bound is reached up to a constant factor: $\gamma_\beta=\Theta(\beta)$.

数学代写|密码学作业代写Cryptography & Cryptanalysis代考|LWE and NTRU

LWE 问题和 NTRU 问题已被证明是密码应用程序的通用构建块 [104、218、274、493]。对于这两个问题，都 存在环和矩阵变体。更准确地说，NTRU 的原始定义是环变体 [274]，很少考虑矩阵变体，而对于 LWE，原始定 义是矩阵变体 [494]，后来定义了环变体 $[401,561]$. 在本章中，我们通常处理矩阵变体，因为我们的重点是一 般格的格约简。

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