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微观经济学是研究稀缺性及其对资源的使用、商品和服务的生产、生产和福利的长期增长的影响,以及对社会至关重要的其他大量复杂问题的研究。
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我们提供的微观经济学Microeconomics及其相关学科的代写,服务范围广, 其中包括但不限于:
- Statistical Inference 统计推断
- Statistical Computing 统计计算
- Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
- Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
- (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
- Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
- Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
- Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Money and the Rate of Interest
The rate of interest has been determined so far by the equilibrium between supply and demand for corn-capital. In real economies, it might be objected, the rate of interest is the ‘price’ of credit, and loans are normally in money terms. Can the above theory apply to an economy where goods are exchanged against money and the rate of interest is the ‘price’ of monetary loans?
The basic idea of the marginal approach on this issue is that (if financial intermediaries do not disturb the process and if, for simplicity, we assume no inflation) the equilibrium rate of interest brings at the same time into equality the supply and demand for capital (stocks), and the supply and demand for monetary gross savings or ‘loanable funds’ (flows). ${ }^{45}$ Gross savings are the sum of funds set aside to replace the used-up capital goods and net savings. Let us leave aside consumer credit which is a complication whose consideration adds little to the basic insight. If the supply of gross savings is greater than the demand for them coming from firms, the rate of interest decreases, and according to the marginal approach firms become ready to employ more capital per unit of labour than before, up to the point where the net marginal product of capital becomes equal (neglecting risk) to the rate of interest. There will be an increase of investment that will gradually increase the stock of capital until the stock of capital becomes such that its marginal product equals the rate of interest. Now, the greater the stock of capital,capital goods. For example, if each period the capital goods to be replaced are worth $1 / 10$ of the value of the capital stock, then each period firms need to borrow loanable funds of a value equal to $1 / 10$ of the value of the capital stock if they intend to keep it unchanged. This flow of borrowing increases if the capital stock increases. If the net savings are positive and gradually increase the stock of capital, then the flow demand for loanable funds by firms to replace used-up capital goods increases and finally swallows up the entire flow supply of gross savings, bringing net savings to zero. At that point the rate of interest that makes firms satisfied with the existing stock of capital – hence, the rate of interest equal to the marginal product of the existing stock of capital – also produces equilibrium between supply and demand for the flow of gross savings. The rate of interest will never go far above that level because firms will not be ready to borrow at a rate above the rate of return they can hope to earn on the capital bought with the loans, rate of return equal to the marginal product of capital. In other words, the demand for loans drops rapidly if the rate of interest goes above the marginal product of the existing stock of capital. As to decreases of the rate of interest below the current marginal product of capital, they too can be expected to be quite limited, as increases in the absorption of a flow of net savings will only very slowly reduce the marginal product of capital. The considerable elasticity of the flow demand for loanable funds implies that the equilibrium rate of interest, although directly determined by the equilibrium between supply and demand for loanable funds, is in fact determined by the full-employment marginal product of capital, in the sense that it will always be very close to the latter.
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Accumulation
At this point we can ask: why does the quantity of capital tend to grow as time passes? In the marginal approach, the answer is: Because consumers decide not to spend on consumption goods their entire net income and lend the remainder to firms at a rate of interest that induces the firms to borrow those net savings and to use them to raise the capital/labour ratio in production by purchasing more new capital goods than required to replace the used-up capital goods. So the stock of capital grows. The increased demand for newly produced capital goods is satisfied by using the productive factors left free by the reduced demand for consumption goods.
For example, in the economy producing corn with corn-capital and labour, with wages paid at the end of the year, if 1100 units of corn are produced in a certain year with the employment of 400 units of corn-capital (hence the net product is 700 ), and if consumers decide to consume only 600 units of corn, they are left with 500 units of unspent income; they will offer it as loans to firms, and if the rate of interest becomes low enough firms will decide they want to borrow that income and use it to buy corn-capital raising the capital-labour ratio in production, employing 500 units of corn-capital instead of the old 400 ; so the net savings of consumers equal in value to 100 units of corn become net investment, and the stock of corn-capital grows from 400 to 500 .
In such a perspective, the capital stock of an economy is the result of the sum of past decisions by consumers to perform net savings out of full-employment production.
Evidently – marginalist economists conclude – since there has been and there continues to be capital accumulation, consumers have been having such preferences that, at the rate of interest corresponding to the full-employment marginal product of capital, in the aggregate they prefer to consume in each period less than the net product of that period, in order to consume more in the future. Nothing in the theory prevents consumers from preferring to consume more than the net product, in which case there would be decumulation of capital; but this has not happened. Evidently the rate of interest is such and preferences are such as to induce consumers to perform net savings, preferring to trade off some present consumption for more consumption in the future.
The marginalist view is that, were it not for the continuous growth of labour supply, and for technical progress that raises the marginal product of capital and contrasts the scarcity of land, this continuous capital accumulation would have caused a continuous decrease of the rate of interest, down probably to zero.
微观经济学代考
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Money and the Rate of Interest
迄今为止,利率是由玉米资本的供求平衡决定的。在实体经济中,有人可能会反对,利率是信贷的“价格”,而贷款通常以货币形式表示。上述理论能否适用于商品与货币交换且利率是货币贷款的“价格”的经济体?
在这个问题上,边际方法的基本思想是(如果金融中介不干扰这个过程,并且为了简单起见,我们假设没有通货膨胀)均衡利率同时使资本的供求平衡(股票),以及货币总储蓄或“可贷资金”(流量)的供求关系。45总储蓄是为替换用完的资本货物而留出的资金和净储蓄的总和。让我们暂且不谈消费信贷,这是一个复杂的因素,其考虑对基本洞察力几乎没有影响。如果总储蓄的供给大于企业对储蓄的需求,则利率下降,根据边际方法,企业准备每单位劳动力使用比以前更多的资本,直到净储蓄资本的边际产品等于(忽略风险)利率。投资的增加将逐渐增加资本存量,直到资本存量达到其边际产量等于利率为止。现在,资本存量越大,资本品越大。例如,1/10资本存量的价值,那么每个时期公司需要借入价值等于的可贷资金1/10如果他们打算保持资本存量不变。如果资本存量增加,这种借贷流量就会增加。如果净储蓄为正并逐渐增加资本存量,则企业为替换用完的资本品而对可贷资金的流动需求增加,最终吞噬总储蓄的全部流动供给,使净储蓄为零。在那个时候,使公司对现有资本存量感到满意的利率——因此,等于现有资本存量的边际产量的利率——也会在总储蓄流动的供需之间产生平衡。利率永远不会超过这个水平,因为公司不会准备好以高于他们希望通过贷款购买的资本获得的回报率借款,回报率等于资本的边际产品. 换句话说,如果利率高于现有资本存量的边际产量,贷款需求就会迅速下降。至于利率下降到当前资本边际产量以下,也可以预期它们是相当有限的,因为吸收净储蓄流的增加只会非常缓慢地降低资本边际产量。可贷资金流动需求的相当大的弹性意味着均衡利率虽然直接由可贷资金的供需平衡决定,
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Accumulation
在这一点上,我们可以问:为什么资本的数量会随着时间的推移而增长?在边际方法中,答案是:因为消费者决定不将他们的全部净收入花在消费品上,而是将剩余部分以促使公司借入这些净储蓄并用于筹集资本的利率借给公司/ 生产中的劳动比率,购买的新资本品超过了替换用完的资本品所需的数量。因此,资本存量增加。对新生产的资本品增加的需求是通过使用因消费品需求减少而腾出的生产要素来满足的。
例如,在用玉米资本和劳动力生产玉米的经济中,工资在年底支付,如果在某一年生产 1100 单位的玉米,使用 400 单位的玉米资本(因此净产品为 700 ),如果消费者决定只消费 600 单位的玉米,他们将剩下 500 单位的未花费收入;他们会将其作为贷款提供给企业,如果利率变得足够低,企业将决定借入这笔收入并用它来购买玉米资本,从而提高生产中的资本-劳动比率,雇用 500 单位的玉米——资本而不是旧的400;因此,价值等于 100 单位玉米的消费者的净储蓄成为净投资,玉米资本存量从 400 增加到 500 。
从这样的角度来看,一个经济体的资本存量是消费者过去在充分就业生产中进行净储蓄的决定之和。
显然——边际主义经济学家得出结论——因为资本积累一直存在并且继续存在,消费者一直有这样的偏好,即按照与资本的充分就业边际产品相对应的利率,他们更愿意在每个时期小于该时期的净产品,以便将来消耗更多。理论上没有什么能阻止消费者比净产品更喜欢消费,在这种情况下,资本就会减少;但这并没有发生。显然,利率是这样的,偏好是这样的,以诱导消费者进行净储蓄,宁愿用一些当前的消费来换取未来的更多消费。
边际主义者的观点是,如果不是劳动力供给持续增长,技术进步提高了资本的边际产量,对比了土地的稀缺性,这种持续的资本积累会导致利率持续下降,可能下降到零。
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金融工程代写
金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题,以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。
非参数统计代写
非参数统计指的是一种统计方法,其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型;这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。
广义线性模型代考
广义线性模型(GLM)归属统计学领域,是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。
术语 广义线性模型(GLM)通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归,以及方差分析和方差分析(仅含固定效应)。
有限元方法代写
有限元方法(FEM)是一种流行的方法,用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。
有限元是一种通用的数值方法,用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程(即一些边界值问题)。为了解决一个问题,有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分,称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的,它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的:用于求解的数值域,它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统,以模拟整个问题。然后,有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。
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随机分析代写
随机微积分是数学的一个分支,对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。
时间序列分析代写
随机过程,是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体,参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现,其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值(如1秒,5分钟,12小时,7天,1年),因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中,往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录,以得到其自身发展的规律。
回归分析代写
多元回归分析渐进(Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics)属于计量经济学领域,主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法,可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系,在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。
MATLAB代写
MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中,其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括:数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发,包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统,其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题,尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题,而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问,这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展,得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中,它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域,MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要,工具箱允许您学习和应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数(M 文件)的综合集合,可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。