### 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|PHYSICS 1002

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写宇宙学cosmology方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写宇宙学cosmology代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写宇宙学cosmology相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|Big Bang nucleosynthesis

Armed with an understanding of the evolution of the scale factor and the densities of the constituents in the universe, we can extrapolate backwards to explore phenomena at early times. When the universe was much hotter and denser, and the temperature was of order $1 \mathrm{MeV} / k_{\mathrm{B}}$, there were no neutral atoms or even bound nuclei. The vast amounts of highenergy radiation in such a hot environment ensured that any atom or nucleus produced would be immediately destroyed by a high-energy photon. As the universe cooled well below typical nuclear binding energies, light elements began to form in a process known as Big Bang Nucleosynthesis (BBN). Knowing the conditions of the early universe and the relevant nuclear cross-sections, we can calculate the expected primordial abundances of all the elements (Ch. 4).

Fig. $1.6$ shows the BBN predictions for the abundances of helium and deuterium as a function of the mean baryon density, essentially the density of ordinary matter (Sect. $2.4$ ) in the universe, in units of the critical density. The predicted abundances, in particular that of deuterium, which we will explore in detail in Ch. 4, depend on the density of protons and neutrons at the time of nucleosynthesis. The combined proton plus neutron density is equal to the baryon density since both protons and neutrons have baryon number one and these are the only baryons around at the time.

The horizontal lines in Fig. 1.6 show the current measurements of the light element abundances. The deuterium abundance is measured in the intergalactic medium at high redshifts by looking for a subtle absorption feature in the spectrum of distant quasars (see Burles and Tytler, 1998; Cooke et al., 2018 and Exercise 1.3). These measurements of the abundances, combined with BBN calculations, give us a way of measuring the baryon density in the universe, constraining ordinary matter to contribute at most $5 \%$ of the critical density (note that the $x$-axis in Fig. $1.6$ is the baryon density divided by the critical density, but multiplied by $h^{2} \simeq 0.5$ ). Since the total matter density today is significantly larger than this-as we will see throughout the book-nucleosynthesis provides a compelling argument for matter that is comprised of neither protons or neutrons. This new type of matter has been dubbed dark matter because it apparently does not emit light. One of the central questions in physics now is: “What is the Dark Matter?”

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|The cosmic microwave background

Another phenomenon that falls out of energetics and a qualitative understanding of the evolution of the universe is the origin of the CMB. When the temperature of the radiation was of order $10^{4} \mathrm{~K}$ (corresponding to energies of order an $\mathrm{eV}$ ), free electrons and protons combined to form neutral hydrogen. Before then, any hydrogen produced was quickly ionized by energetic photons. After that epoch, at $z \simeq 1100$, the photons that comprise the CMB ceased interacting with any particles and traveled freely through space. When we observe them today, we are thus looking at messengers from an early moment in the universe’s history. They are therefore the most powerful probes of the early universe. We will spend an inordinate amount of time in this book working through the details of what happened to the photons before they last scattered off of free electrons, and also developing the mathematics of the free-streaming process since then. Among many other aspects, we will understand how the CMB constrains the baryon density independently, and in agreement with BBN as shown in Fig. 1.6, providing a ringing confirmation of the concordance model.

For now, we are only concerned with the crucial fact that the interactions of photons with electrons before last scattering ensured that the photons were in equilibrium. That is, they should have a black-body spectrum. The specific intensity of a gas of photons with a black-body spectrum is
$$I_{v}=\frac{4 \pi \hbar v^{3} / c^{2}}{\exp \left[2 \pi \hbar v / k_{\mathrm{B}} T\right]-1} .$$
Fig. 1.7 shows the remarkable agreement between this prediction (see Exercise 1.4) of Big Bang cosmology and the observations by the FIRAS instrument aboard the COBE satellite. In fact, the CMB provides the best black-body spectrum ever measured. We have been told ${ }^{2}$ that detection of the $3 \mathrm{~K}$ background by Penzias and Wilson in the mid-1960s was sufficient evidence to decide the controversy in favor of the Big Bang over the Steady State universe, an alternative scenario without any expansion. Penzias and Wilson, though, measured the radiation at just one wavelength. If even their one-wavelength result was enough to tip the scales, the current data depicted in Fig. $1.7$ should send skeptics from the pages of physics journals to the far reaches of radical internet chat groups.

## 物理代写|宇宙学代写cosmology代考|Structure in the universe

The existence of structure in the universe was known long before the detection of CMB anisotropies: various efforts to map out the distribution of galaxies in the local universe clearly showed that they are not distributed homogeneously. The number of galaxies and volume covered by such surveys has grown exponentially. Two surveys in particular broke new ground: the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS; Fig. 1.8) and the Two Degree Field Galaxy Redshift Survey (2dF), which between them compiled the redshifts of, and hence the distances to, over a million galaxies. Projects over the ensuing decades have and will provide deeper and more detailed maps than these ground-breaking surveys, by orders of magnitude.

The galaxies in Fig. $1.8$ are clearly not distributed randomly: the universe has structure on large scales. To understand this structure, we must develop the tools to study perturbations around the smooth background. We will see that this is straightforward in theory, as long as the perturbations remain small. To compare theory with observations, we must thus try to avoid regimes that cannot be described by small perturbations. As an extreme example, we can never hope to understand cosmology by carefully examining rock formations on Earth. The intermediate steps-collapse of matter into a galaxy; star formation; planet formation; geology; etc.-are much too complicated to allow comparison between linear theory and observations. In fact, perturbations to the matter on small scales (less than about $10 \mathrm{Mpc}$ ) have become large in the late universe; that is, the fractional density fluctuations on these scales are not small, but comparable to or larger than unity. We say that these scales have grown nonlinear. On the other hand, large-scale perturbations are still small (quasi-linear). So they have been processed much less than the small-scale structure. Similarly, anisotropies in the CMB are small because they originated at early times and the photons that we observe from the CMB do not clump on their way to us. Because of this, the best ways to learn about the evolution of structure and to compare theory with observations are to look at anisotropies in the CMB and at large-scale structure (LSS), i.e. how galaxies and matter are distributed on large scales. However, we will learn in Chs. 12-13 that valuable cosmological information can also be extracted from smaller, nonlinear scales provided we choose our observables wisely.

It is paramount therefore to develop statistics that can empower us to compare maps like that shown in Fig. $1.8$ to theories while isolating large scales from small scales. For this purpose, it is often useful to take the Fourier transform of the distribution in question; as we will see, working in Fourier space makes it easier to separate large from small scales. The most important statistic in the cases of both the CMB and the large-scale structure is the two-point function, short-hand for two-point correlation function. When measured using Fourier-space fields, it is called the power spectrum.

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## MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。