经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|ECON30003

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产业经济学是关于公司、行业和市场的研究。它研究各种规模的公司–从当地的角落商店到沃尔玛或乐购这样的跨国巨头。它还考虑了一系列的行业，如发电、汽车生产和餐馆。

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写产业经济学Industrial Economics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写产业经济学Industrial Economics代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写产业经济学Industrial Economics相关的作业也就用不着说。

我们提供的产业经济学Industrial Economics及其相关学科的代写，服务范围广, 其中包括但不限于:

  • Statistical Inference 统计推断
  • Statistical Computing 统计计算
  • Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
  • Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
  • (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
  • Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
  • Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
  • Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础
经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|ECON30003

经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|The relationships between targets and instruments

The simplest mechanism for influencing the quantity and quality of retailing resources is to specify contractually the conditions under which the product is to be sold. This is often not enough, however: no Court will adjudicate on the attractiveness or helpfulness of sales assistants; no individual retailer has control over the total number of retail outlets. Resale price maintenance, territorial exclusivity, and selective distribution can all be used to give incentives to increase the resources devoted to retailing a particular product.

Opportunism is made possible by the existence of asset specificity and sunk costs on one side of the relationship and is discouraged by increasing them on the other. Exclusive dealing relationships and territorial exclusivity are both means of increasing the commitment of the two parties to the relationship. Raising the other party’s sunk costs has the same effect.

One way of securing bias is to build it into the terms and conditions of supply – a stockist of my washing machines may be required to devote a certain amount of space to their display. Bias is intrinsic to an exclusive dealing arrangement. The most valuable bias, however, is that provided by a retailer who appears to be independent. Override commissions to travel agents or insurance brokers may achieve this. So may direct payment for promotion of the product. (These are more usually made indirectly through the provision of cheap loans or equipment.)

Market segmentation may be defended by contractual prohibitions on arbitrage, while resale price maintenance may make arbitrage unprofitable. Exclusive dealing arrangements increase search and switching costs for consumers, and may also raise switching costs for retailers, since they tend to increase the extent to which assets are specific to a particular manufacturer. Non-linear price schedules make alternative sourcing on a small scale expensive. Increasing sunk costs which are specific to a particular producer directly increases the costs to retailers of switching supplier. All these devices also have the effect of creating obstacles to new entry.

Vertical restraints can most effectively be used to extend monopoly through a form of exclusive dealing: purchase of the monopoly product is conditional on buying the competitive products from the same supplier. Alternatively, the competitive and monopoly products are often combined in a single bundle.

The matrix of relationships between targets and instruments is shown in table 14.1. The lists are not exhaustive: nor are the entries in the cells of the matrix complete. But the structure illustrates why vertical restraints pose a general problem for competition policy. Some of the objectives of vertical restraints are essentially benign. In respect of the manufacturer’s interest in the absolute conditions of product sale, for example, it is difficult to detect any divergence between the interests of consumers and producers. The situation is, however, very different when measures to discourage entry are concerned. But the difficulty is that there is no one to one mapping between targets and instruments. The same mechanism may serve both innocuous and anticompetitive ends. It follows from this that rules which are based on the form of a particular restraint are likely to be inadequate. Nor is it possible, or sensible, to look at intent: since there are several purposes to any particular action, there is no reason why even a frank respondent should be clear about the relative contributions of his different motives. That requires that public policy should undertake a cost-benefit analysis of the consequences of any particular restraint: but is it realistic to expect that the antitrust authorities will make an assessment of a rule such as McDonald’s hamburgers must be sold under golden arches?

经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|The legality of vertical restraints

The basic legal principle is that the Courts will enforce a valid contract. It follows that if the conditions of sale include a vertical restraint, then that restraint binds the purchaser. Exceptionally, the law may make certain restraints ineffective by express provision. This is common, for example, where the manufacturer seeks to escape liability to purchasers of defective products. A seller may also require the purchaser to impose conditions on subsequent purchasers – as is true of the restriction on rebinding books. Transfers of land may often be subject to irrelevant or onerous conditions which were imposed for the first time in transactions which occurred many centuries ago.

Vertical restraints imposed within the European Community fall under the scope of Articles 85 and 86 of the Treaty of Rome. Article 85 prohibits an agreement between undertakings which restricts or distorts competition and has an effect on trade between member states. Article $85(3)$ provides, however, for the exemption of agreements which are of economic benefit. This provision has been used by the Commission to grant block exemption for certain important categories of vertical restraint, particularly the selective distribution agreements between motor manufacturers and their franchisees and the exclusive dealing arrangements between the suppliers of beer and petrol and their retailers.

A vertical restraint may also be an abuse of a dominant position in terms of Article 86. There is no equivalent provision for exemption from Article 86 , and Article 86 has been applied against a range of vertical restrictions, including territorial exclusivity (Grundig), incentive schemes for dealers (Michelin Tyres) and aggregated rebates (Hoffman la Roche).

Some Community states also have domestic legislation which bears on – at least some – kinds of vertical restraint. In the UK, resale price maintenance is generally illegal. Policy towards other forms of restriction broadly follows the European model. A vertical restraint is likely to be an anticompetitive practice in terms of the 1980 Competition Act, which means that if it is found, after investigation by the Monopolies and Mergers Commission, to be against the public interest, it can be prohibited. Raleigh’s refusal to supply bicycles other than through specialist retailers fell under these provisions. If they are undertaken by a firm or groups of firms who occupy a monopoly position, vertical restraints may be the subject of specific recommendation following an investigation by the $\mathrm{MMC}$ of the industry as a whole. This was the basis of the recent recommendations made (but not substantially implemented) for loosening the ties between breweries and public houses. The German position is similar. Section 15 of the Restraint of Competition Act (GWB) imposes a general prohibition of resale price maintenance. There are no per se rules about other vertical restraints, but section 18 allows the Cartel Office to declare specific practices illegal.

经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|ECON30003

产业经济学代考

经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|The relationships between targets and instruments

影响零售资源数量和质量的最简单机制是在合同中指定产品销售条件。然而，这通常还不够：没有法院会就销售助理的吸引力或乐于助人做出裁决；没有哪个零售商可以控制零售店的总数。维持转售价格、区域独家经营权和选择性分销都可以用来激励增加用于零售特定产品的资源。

关系一方面的资产专用性和沉没成本的存在使机会主义成为可能，而另一方面则因增加它们而受到阻碍。排他性交易关系和领土排他性都是增加双方对关系的承诺的手段。提高对方的沉没成本也有同样的效果。

确保偏见的一种方法是将其纳入供应条款和条件——我的洗衣机的库存商可能需要为他们的展示投入一定的空间。偏见是排他性交易安排所固有的。然而，最有价值的偏见是由看似独立的零售商提供的。覆盖旅行社或保险经纪人的佣金可能会实现这一点。因此可以直接为产品的促销付款。（这些通常是通过提供低息贷款或设备间接获得的。）

市场分割可以通过合同禁止套利来保护，而维持转售价格可能会使套利无利可图。排他性交易安排增加了消费者的搜索和转换成本，也可能增加了零售商的转换成本，因为它们往往会增加资产对特定制造商的特定程度。非线性价格表使小规模的替代采购变得昂贵。特定生产商特有的沉没成本增加直接增加了零售商更换供应商的成本。所有这些设备还具有为新进入设置障碍的效果。

纵向限制可以最有效地用于通过排他性交易形式扩大垄断：购买垄断产品的条件是从同一供应商处购买竞争产品。或者，竞争产品和垄断产品通常组合成一个包。

表 14.1 显示了目标和工具之间的关系矩阵。这些列表并不详尽：矩阵单元格中的条目也不完整。但该结构说明了为什么纵向限制会成为竞争政策的普遍问题。纵向限制的一些目标本质上是良性的。例如，在产品销售的绝对条件下制造商的利益，消费者和生产者的利益之间很难发现任何分歧。然而，当涉及阻止进入的措施时，情况就大不相同了。但困难在于目标和仪器之间没有一对一的映射。相同的机制可能同时服务于无害和反竞争的目的。由此可见，基于特定限制形式的规则可能是不充分的。看意图也是不可能的，也不明智的：因为任何特定行为都有多个目的，所以即使是坦率的受访者也没有理由清楚他不同动机的相对贡献。这就要求公共政策应对任何特定限制的后果进行成本效益分析：但是期望反托拉斯当局对麦当劳汉堡必须在金拱门下销售这样的规则进行评估是否现实？即使是坦率的受访者也没有理由清楚他不同动机的相对贡献。这就要求公共政策应对任何特定限制的后果进行成本效益分析：但是期望反托拉斯当局对麦当劳汉堡必须在金拱门下销售这样的规则进行评估是否现实？即使是坦率的受访者也没有理由清楚他不同动机的相对贡献。这就要求公共政策应对任何特定限制的后果进行成本效益分析：但是期望反托拉斯当局对麦当劳汉堡必须在金拱门下销售这样的规则进行评估是否现实？

经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|The legality of vertical restraints

基本的法律原则是法院将强制执行有效的合同。因此，如果销售条件包括纵向限制，则该限制对购买者具有约束力。在特殊情况下，法律可以通过明文规定使某些限制无效。这很常见，例如，制造商试图逃避对有缺陷产品的购买者的责任。卖家也可能要求买家对后续买家施加条件——对重新装订书籍的限制也是如此。土地转让可能常常受到不相关或繁重的条件的约束，这些条件是在许多世纪前发生的交易中首次施加的。

欧洲共同体内部实施的纵向限制属于《罗马条约》第 85 条和第 86 条的范围。第 85 条禁止企业之间达成限制或扭曲竞争并对成员国之间的贸易产生影响的协议。文章85(3)但是，规定豁免具有经济利益的协议。该条款已被委员会用于对某些重要类别的纵向限制授予集体豁免，特别是汽车制造商与其特许经营商之间的选择性分销协议以及啤酒和汽油供应商与其零售商之间的独家交易安排。

根据第 86 条，纵向限制也可能是滥用支配地位。第 86 条没有相应的豁免条款，第 86 条适用于一系列纵向限制，包括领土排他性 (Grundig)、激励措施经销商计划 (Michelin Tyres) 和综合回扣 (Hoffman la Roche)。

一些共同体国家也有涉及（至少是某些）纵向限制的国内立法。在英国，维持转售价格通常是非法的。针对其他形式的限制的政策大致遵循欧洲模式。根据 1980 年《竞争法》，纵向限制很可能是一种反竞争行为，这意味着如果经垄断与兼并委员会调查后发现有违公共利益，则可以予以禁止。Raleigh 拒绝通过专业零售商以外的方式供应自行车属于这些规定。如果它们是由占据垄断地位的公司或公司集团承担的，则纵向限制可能是经过监管机构调查后具体建议的主题米米C整个行业的。这是最近为放松啤酒厂和公共场所之间的联系而提出（但没有实质性实施）的建议的基础。德国的立场与此相似。《限制竞争法》(GWB) 第 15 条规定普遍禁止维持转售价格。没有关于其他纵向限制的本身规则，但第 18 节允许卡特尔办公室宣布特定行为非法。

经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考 请认准statistics-lab™

统计代写请认准statistics-lab™. statistics-lab™为您的留学生涯保驾护航。

金融工程代写

金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题，以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。

非参数统计代写

非参数统计指的是一种统计方法，其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型；这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。

广义线性模型代考

广义线性模型（GLM）归属统计学领域，是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。

术语 广义线性模型（GLM）通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归，以及方差分析和方差分析（仅含固定效应）。

有限元方法代写

有限元方法（FEM）是一种流行的方法，用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。

有限元是一种通用的数值方法，用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程（即一些边界值问题）。为了解决一个问题，有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分，称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的，它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的：用于求解的数值域，它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统，以模拟整个问题。然后，有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

随机分析代写


随机微积分是数学的一个分支，对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。

时间序列分析代写

随机过程，是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体，参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现，其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值（如1秒，5分钟，12小时，7天，1年），因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中，往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录，以得到其自身发展的规律。

回归分析代写

多元回归分析渐进（Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics）属于计量经济学领域，主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法，可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系，在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习和应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

R语言代写问卷设计与分析代写
PYTHON代写回归分析与线性模型代写
MATLAB代写方差分析与试验设计代写
STATA代写机器学习/统计学习代写
SPSS代写计量经济学代写
EVIEWS代写时间序列分析代写
EXCEL代写深度学习代写
SQL代写各种数据建模与可视化代写

经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|ECON7001

Posted on by statistics-lab

如果你也在 怎样代写产业经济学Industrial Economics这个学科遇到相关的难题，请随时右上角联系我们的24/7代写客服。

产业经济学是关于公司、行业和市场的研究。它研究各种规模的公司–从当地的角落商店到沃尔玛或乐购这样的跨国巨头。它还考虑了一系列的行业，如发电、汽车生产和餐馆。

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写产业经济学Industrial Economics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写产业经济学Industrial Economics代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写产业经济学Industrial Economics相关的作业也就用不着说。

我们提供的产业经济学Industrial Economics及其相关学科的代写，服务范围广, 其中包括但不限于:

  • Statistical Inference 统计推断
  • Statistical Computing 统计计算
  • Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
  • Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
  • (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
  • Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
  • Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
  • Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础
经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|ECON7001

经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|The meaning of vertical restraints

A vertical restraint is a restriction imposed by manufacturers or wholesalers on those to whom they sell their products. We are subject to such restraints more often than we think. The publishers of most books sold in the UK attempt to impose three vertical restraints. One is a requirement that ‘no part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without permission’. It limits the use which the owner may make of the book he has purchased: he may not reproduce or transmit it in any form or by any means.

Another is that the book is sold subject to the standard conditions of the Net Book Agreement. The most important of these conditions prohibits a retailer from selling the book at a price other than that fixed by the publisher. Books are one of the small number of commodities which may legally be subject to this resale price maintenance, as a result of a ruling in 1962 that the net book agreement – an agreement registered under the Restrictive Practices Act – was in the public interest. ${ }^1$

A third restraint prohibits the purchaser from rebinding the paperback edition in hard covers. The price difference between the paperback and hardback editions exceeds the cost of binding. In producing two versions of the same book, the publisher hopes to segment the library market – in which he believes demand is inelastic – from sales to individuals. The restriction is designed to limit arbitrage between these two markets.

Each of these vertical restraints is patently anticompetitive in its intention and effects. The first is designed to prevent other publishers from producing the same book at a lower price – it aims to establish a barrier to entry. The second seeks to limit competition between retailers. The third is intended to support the segmentation of the market and associated price discrimination by the publisher. These objectives entry prevention, limitation of retail competition, and market segmentation – are typical of vertical restraints.

Yet it is apparent that a case can be made that each of these restrictions is of public benefit. If other publishers and readers were free to Xerox books at will, sales would be reduced and publishers would find it difficult to recover the fixed costs of typesetting and royalties to authors which their competitors would not have to incur. Resale price maintenance is harder to defend, but representatives of the Publishers Association succeeded in persuading a sceptical court of senior judges that it was in the public interest. Price discrimination permits books to be published, and made available in student editions, which might otherwise never see the light of day, or otherwise be available only to very few readers. Defer judgement on the merits of these arguments for the moment: note only that they can be made. It is the possibility that vertical restraints can be both restrictive of competition and of general benefit, that has made policy towards them such a difficult issue.

经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|Attitudes to vertical restraints

Competition policy has tended to view vertical restraints with considerable suspicion. Several of the landmark cases in the evolution of the antitrust policy of the European Community have been concerned with vertical restraints – such as the incentives offered by Michelin Tyres to its distributors, the aggregated rebate scheme used by Hoffman la Roche to sell its vitamins, territorial restrictions on the sale of Grundig appliances, and the control by United Brands of the European banana market. However, a number of important classes of restraint have secured the block exemption available under Article $85(3)$ from the provisions of the Treaty.

In the US too, vertical restraints have been a principal concern of the competition authorities. In the last fifteen years, however, the interpretation of American antitrust law has undergone major changes and in no area has this change been as radical as in the judicial approach to vertical restraints. Broadly, the Justice Department will now not normally challenge a vertical restraint and a private plaintiff is unlikely to be able to do so with much hope of success. William Baxter – an assistant Attorney General in charge of antitrust policy in the Reagan administration, who both symbolized and was partly responsible for this shift in stance – has been quoted as saying ‘In my view, there is no such thing as a vertical “problem” …. The only possible adverse competitive consequences of vertical arrangements are in their horizontal effects’ (Howard, 1983).

This shift in opinion is the result partly of a general change in intellectual climate.

However, a group associated with the University of Chicago $^2$ has been particularly influential, both through articles and books, and as a result of testimony in particular cases. Their approach begins by noting that the principal interest which the manufacturer of a product has in the conditions under which it is sold is that they should be such as to maximize his sales. This is not often achieved by limiting retail competition. It follows that although vertical restraints may often be anticompetitive in appearance, in some more fundamental sense they facilitate the operation of the competitive process.

Thus if – to take an extreme case – I am a wholesaler or manufacturer of perfume, the environment in which my product is sold is a matter of prime importance. I am selling magic, not simply smells, and magic is not available in discount stores or at cut prices. I therefore insist that my perfume is sold only by attractive sales assistants in luxurious surroundings and if $\mathrm{I}$ facilitate its sale at reduced prices at all, it is only in airport shops where the customer believes (erroneously) that the low price is the result of reduced taxes rather than reduced margins.

Now this view may be mistaken. Purchasers of perfume may be as hard-nosed as purchasers of potatoes and base their choices on a careful assessment of value for money. In that case my strategy will be less profitable than one which does not include vertical restraints. But that is a matter for my commercial judgement and it is no more sensible or reasonable for the competition authorities to insist that I sell my perfume through Woolworths than it is appropriate for them to prescribe the ingredients from which it should be manufactured or the way in which it should be packaged or advertised.

经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|ECON7001

产业经济学代考

经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|The meaning of vertical restraints

纵向限制是制造商或批发商对其产品销售对象施加的限制。我们比我们想象的更经常地受到这种限制。在英国销售的大多数书籍的出版商都试图施加三个纵向限制。其中一项要求是“未经许可，不得以任何形式或通过任何方式复制或传播本出版物的任何部分”。它限制了所有者对其购买的书籍的使用：他不得以任何形式或通过任何方式复制或传播它。

另一个是图书的销售受上网图书协议的标准条件约束。这些条件中最重要的是禁止零售商以出版商规定的价格以外的价格出售图书。由于 1962 年的一项裁决，根据《限制性做法法》注册的上网书协议符合公共利益，因此书籍是少数可能在法律上受到转售价格维持的商品之一。1

第三个限制是禁止购买者将平装本重新装订成精装本。平装本和精装本之间的价格差异超过了装订成本。在制作同一本书的两个版本时，出版商希望将图书馆市场（他认为需求缺乏弹性）从销售到个人进行细分。该限制旨在限制这两个市场之间的套利。

这些纵向限制中的每一项在其意图和效果上都明显是反竞争的。第一个旨在防止其他出版商以较低的价格生产同一本书——它旨在建立进入壁垒。第二个旨在限制零售商之间的竞争。第三个旨在支持出版商的市场细分和相关的价格歧视。这些目标包括防止进入、限制零售竞争和市场细分——是典型的纵向限制。

然而，很明显，可以证明这些限制中的每一项都是为了公共利益。如果其他出版商和读者可以随意使用 Xerox 书籍，销量就会减少，出版商会发现很难收回竞争对手不必承担的排版和版税的固定成本。维持转售价格更难辩护，但出版商协会的代表成功地说服了持怀疑态度的高级法官法庭，认为这符合公共利益。价格歧视使书籍得以出版，并以学生版提供，否则这些书籍可能永远见不到天日，或者只能供极少数读者使用。暂时推迟对这些论点的是非曲直的判断：只注意它们是可以做出的。

经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|Attitudes to vertical restraints

竞争政策倾向于对纵向限制持相当怀疑的态度。欧洲共同体反垄断政策演变过程中的几个具有里程碑意义的案例都与纵向限制有关——例如米其林轮胎向其分销商提供的激励措施、霍夫曼罗氏公司用于销售其维生素的综合回扣计划、地域限制Grundig 电器的销售限制，以及 United Brands 对欧洲香蕉市场的控制。然而，许多重要的限制类别已获得第 1 条规定的集体豁免85(3)从条约的规定。

同样在美国，纵向限制一直是竞争主管部门关注的主要问题。然而，在过去的 15 年里，美国反托拉斯法的解释发生了重大变化，而且这种变化在任何领域都没有像对纵向限制的司法方法那样激进。从广义上讲，司法部现在通常不会对纵向限制提出异议，而私人原告不太可能成功地提出异议。威廉·巴克斯特 (William Baxter) 是里根政府负责反托拉斯政策的助理检察长，他既是这种立场转变的象征，也对这种转变负有部分责任——被引述说“在我看来，不存在垂直”问题” …… 纵向安排唯一可能的不利竞争后果是它们的横向效应”（霍华德，

这种观点的转变部分是知识分子气候普遍变化的结果。

然而，一个与芝加哥大学有关的团体2通过文章和书籍，以及在特定案件中的证词，影响力特别大。他们的方法首先注意到，产品制造商在产品销售条件下的主要利益是产品应该能够最大限度地提高销售量。这通常不是通过限制零售竞争来实现的。由此可见，虽然纵向限制在表面上可能经常是反竞争的，但在某种更基本的意义上，它们促进了竞争过程的运作。

因此，如果——举一个极端的例子——我是香水的批发商或制造商，那么我的产品销售环境是最重要的问题。我卖的是魔法，而不仅仅是气味，而且魔法在折扣店或打折店是买不到的。因此，我坚持认为我的香水只能由漂亮的售货员在豪华的环境中销售，如果我促进其以低价销售，只有在机场商店中，客户才会（错误地）认为低价是减税的结果，而不是利润减少的结果。

现在这个观点可能是错误的。香水的购买者可能和马铃薯的购买者一样精明，他们的选择基于对物有所值的仔细评估。在那种情况下，我的策略将比不包括纵向限制的策略更有利可图。但这是我的商业判断问题，竞争当局坚持让我通过 Woolworths 销售我的香水并不比他们规定制造香水的成分或方式更合适。它应该被包装或做广告。

经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考 请认准statistics-lab™

统计代写请认准statistics-lab™. statistics-lab™为您的留学生涯保驾护航。

金融工程代写

金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题，以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。

非参数统计代写

非参数统计指的是一种统计方法，其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型；这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。

广义线性模型代考

广义线性模型（GLM）归属统计学领域，是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。

术语 广义线性模型（GLM）通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归，以及方差分析和方差分析（仅含固定效应）。

有限元方法代写

有限元方法（FEM）是一种流行的方法，用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。

有限元是一种通用的数值方法，用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程（即一些边界值问题）。为了解决一个问题，有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分，称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的，它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的：用于求解的数值域，它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统，以模拟整个问题。然后，有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

随机分析代写


随机微积分是数学的一个分支，对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。

时间序列分析代写

随机过程，是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体，参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现，其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值（如1秒，5分钟，12小时，7天，1年），因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中，往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录，以得到其自身发展的规律。

回归分析代写

多元回归分析渐进（Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics）属于计量经济学领域，主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法，可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系，在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习和应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

R语言代写问卷设计与分析代写
PYTHON代写回归分析与线性模型代写
MATLAB代写方差分析与试验设计代写
STATA代写机器学习/统计学习代写
SPSS代写计量经济学代写
EVIEWS代写时间序列分析代写
EXCEL代写深度学习代写
SQL代写各种数据建模与可视化代写

经济代写|博弈论代写Game Theory代考|ECON3503

Posted on by statistics-lab

如果你也在 怎样代写博弈论Game Theory这个学科遇到相关的难题，请随时右上角联系我们的24/7代写客服。

博弈论是对理性主体之间战略互动的数学模型的研究。它在社会科学的所有领域，以及逻辑学、系统科学和计算机科学中都有应用。最初，它针对的是两人的零和博弈，其中每个参与者的收益或损失都与其他参与者的收益或损失完全平衡。在21世纪，博弈论适用于广泛的行为关系；它现在是人类、动物以及计算机的逻辑决策科学的一个总称。

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写博弈论Game Theory方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写博弈论Game Theory代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写博弈论Game Theory相关的作业也就用不着说。

我们提供的博弈论Game Theory及其相关学科的代写，服务范围广, 其中包括但不限于:

  • Statistical Inference 统计推断
  • Statistical Computing 统计计算
  • Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
  • Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
  • (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
  • Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
  • Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
  • Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础
经济代写|博弈论代写Game Theory代考|ECON3503

经济代写|博弈论代写Game Theory代考|Further Discussions

Game theory attempts to bring mathematical precision to decision-making so that best strategies can be played, even in the arms race between the learner and the adversary. In game theory, we assume the players are rational-they seek to maximize their payoffs or minimize their losses. This assumption is not necessarily valid in real life, especially in cybersecurity domains. What appears irrational to one player may be rational to the opponent player. For example, when we model a game between airport security and terrorists, it may not be a good idea to view the terrorists based on our own experiences. When the opponent is not rational or simply plays poorly, it is important to realize that continuing to play the equilibrium strategy will lead to a losing situation or the loss of opportunity to exploit the opponent’s weaknesses.

Behavioral economists have long questioned the strict assumptions about rationality in existing theories in game theory (Aumann 1997). The actual decision-making by individuals is often irrational even in simple decision problems. Individuals typically fail to select the best response from a set of choice. As a matter of fact, optimization is so difficult that individuals are often unable to come up with their best responses to their opponents’ moves, unlike what the rational decision theory has always assumed. In response, theories that relax the rationality constraints have been proposed among which include: Quantal Response Equilibrium (QRE) (McKelvey and Palfrey 1995), a solution concept that promotes an equilibrium notion with bounded rationality that acknowledges the possibility that players do not always play a best response; Prospect Theory (Kahneman and Tversky 1979; Tversky and Kahneman 1992), a solution that introduces payoffs with respect to a reference point at which there is larger slope for losses than for gains and agents tend to overestimate small probabilities and underestimate large probabilities.

The same debate is applicable to mixed strategy games. In the airport security game, how the airport deploys security patrols depends on the response from the terrorists. If the rationality of the terrorists is predictable, it would be best for the airport to deploy its security patrols randomly by playing a mixed strategy. However, when there is a good reason to believe that the terrorists are not going to play the equilibrium strategy, airport security may be better off by playing pure strategies. Generally speaking, unless the odds are strongly in our favor, playing equilibrium strategies would be our best choice. Nevertheless, we should always keep in mind that our calculation of rationality may lead to different behavior, new rules may need to be defined in the game to take this into consideration.

经济代写|博弈论代写Game Theory代考|Adversarial Machine Learning

While there is a growing interest in applying machine learning to different data domains and deploying machine learning algorithms in real systems, it has become imperative to understand vulnerabilities of machine learning in the presence of adversaries. To that end, adversarial machine learning (Kurakin et al. 2016a; Vorobeychik and Kantarcioglu 2018; Shi et al. 2018b) has emerged as a critical field to enable safe adoption of machine learning subject to adversarial effects. One example that has attracted recent attention involves machine learning applications offered to public or paid subscribers via APIs; e.g. Google Cloud Vision (2020) provides cloud-based machine learning tools to build machine learning models. This online service paradigm creates security concerns of adversarial inputs to different machine learning algorithms ranging from computer vision to NLP (Shi et al. 2018c,d). As another application domain, automatic speech recognition and voice controllable systems were studied in terms of the vulnerabilities of their underlying machine learning algorithms (Vaidya et al. 2016; Zhang et al. 2017). As an effort to identify vulnerabilities in autonomous driving, attacks on self-driving vehicles were demonstrated in Kurakin et al. (2016), where the adversary manipulated traffic signs to confuse the learning model.

The manipulation in adversarial machine learning may happen during the training or inference (test) time, or both. During the training time, the goal of the adversary is to provide wrong inputs (features and/or labels) to the training data such that the machine learning algorithm is not properly trained. During the test time, the goal of the adversary is to provide wrong inputs (features) to the machine algorithm such that it returns wrong outputs. As illustrated in Figure 14.1, attacks built upon adversarial machine learning can be categorized as follows.

  1. Attack during the test time.
    a. Inference (exploratory) attack: The adversary aims to infer the machine learning architecture of the target system to build a shadow or surrogate model that has the same functionality as the original machine learning architecture (Barreno et al. 2006; Tramer et al. 2016; Wu et al. 2016; Papernot et al. 2017; Shi et al. 2017; Shi et al. 2018b). This corresponds to a white-box or black-box attack depending on whether the machine learning model such as the deep neural network structure is available to the adversary, or not. For a black-box attack, the adversary queries the target classifier with a number of samples and records the labels. Then, it uses this labeled data as its own training data to train a functionally equivalent (i.e. statistically similar) deep learning classifier, namely a surrogate model. Once the machine learning functionality is learned, the adversary can use the inference results obtained from the surrogate model for subsequent attacks such as confidence reduction or targeted misclassification.
    b. Membership inference attack: The adversary aims to determine if a given data sample is a member of the training data, i.e. if a given data sample has been used to train the machine learning algorithm of interest (Nasr et al. 2018; Song et al. 2018; Jia et al. 2019; Leino and Fredrikson 2020). Membership inference attack is based on the analysis of overfitting to check whether a machine learning algorithm is trained for a particular data type, e.g. a particular type of images. By knowing which type of data the machine learning algorithm is trained to classify, the adversary can then design a subsequent attack more successfully.
经济代写|博弈论代写Game Theory代考|ECON3503

博弈论代考

经济代写|博弈论代写Game Theory代考|Further Discussions

博弈论试图将数学精确性带入决策制定，以便即使在学习者和对手之间的军备竞赛中也能发挥最佳策略。在博弈论中，我们假设参与者是理性的——他们寻求最大化收益或最小化损失。这种假设在现实生活中不一定有效，尤其是在网络安全领域。对一个玩家来说不合理的事情可能对对手玩家来说是合理的。例如，当我们模拟机场安全和恐怖分子之间的博弈时，根据我们自己的经验来看待恐怖分子可能不是一个好主意。当对手不理性或只是打得不好时，重要的是要意识到继续采用均衡策略将导致失败的局面或失去利用对手弱点的机会。

长期以来，行为经济学家一直质疑博弈论中现有理论对理性的严格假设（Aumann 1997）。即使在简单的决策问题中，个人的实际决策也往往是非理性的。个人通常无法从一组选择中选择最佳反应。事实上，优化是如此困难，以至于个人往往无法对对手的举动做出最佳反应，这与理性决策理论一直假设的不同。作为回应，人们提出了放松理性约束的理论，其中包括： 量子响应平衡 (QRE)（McKelvey 和 Palfrey 1995），这是一种解决方案概念，它促进具有有限理性的均衡概念，承认玩家并不总是玩游戏的可能性最好的回应；

同样的争论也适用于混合策略游戏。在机场安保博弈中，机场如何部署安保巡逻，取决于恐怖分子的反应。如果恐怖分子的理性是可以预见的，机场安保巡逻最好是随机部署，玩混合策略。然而，当有充分的理由相信恐怖分子不会采用均衡策略时，机场安全可能会通过采用纯策略而变得更好。一般而言，除非赔率对我们有利，否则采用均衡策略将是我们的最佳选择。然而，我们应该始终牢记，我们的理性计算可能会导致不同的行为，可能需要在游戏中定义新的规则来考虑到这一点。

经济代写|博弈论代写Game Theory代考|Adversarial Machine Learning

尽管人们对将机器学习应用于不同的数据域并在真实系统中部署机器学习算法的兴趣越来越大，但了解机器学习在存在对手的情况下的弱点已变得势在必行。为此，对抗性机器学习（Kurakin 等人 2016a；Vorobeychik 和 Kantarcioglu 2018 年；Shi 等人 2018b）已成为一个关键领域，可以安全采用受对抗影响的机器学习。最近引起关注的一个例子涉及通过 API 向公众或付费用户提供的机器学习应用程序；例如 Google Cloud Vision (2020) 提供基于云的机器学习工具来构建机器学习模型。这种在线服务范式对从计算机视觉到 NLP 的不同机器学习算法的对抗性输入产生了安全问题（Shi 等人，2018c，d）。作为另一个应用领域，自动语音识别和语音可控系统根据其底层机器学习算法的漏洞进行了研究（Vaidya 等人 2016 年；Zhang 等人 2017 年）。为了识别自动驾驶中的漏洞，Kurakin 等人演示了对自动驾驶车辆的攻击。(2016)，对手操纵交通标志来混淆学习模型。2016; 张等。2017）。为了识别自动驾驶中的漏洞，Kurakin 等人演示了对自动驾驶车辆的攻击。(2016)，对手操纵交通标志来混淆学习模型。2016; 张等。2017）。为了识别自动驾驶中的漏洞，Kurakin 等人演示了对自动驾驶车辆的攻击。(2016)，对手操纵交通标志来混淆学习模型。

对抗性机器学习中的操作可能发生在训练或推理（测试）时间，或两者兼而有之。在训练期间，对手的目标是向训练数据提供错误的输入（特征和/或标签），从而导致机器学习算法无法正确训练。在测试期间，对手的目标是向机器算法提供错误的输入（特征），使其返回错误的输出。如图 14.1 所示，基于对抗性机器学习的攻击可分为以下几类。

  1. 在测试时间内攻击。
    A。推理（探索性）攻击：对手旨在推断目标系统的机器学习架构，以构建与原始机器学习架构具有相同功能的影子或替代模型（Barreno 等人，2006 年；Tramer 等人，2016 年； Wu 等人 2016 年；Papernot 等人 2017 年；Shi 等人 2017 年；Shi 等人 2018b)。这对应于白盒或黑盒攻击，具体取决于对手是否可以使用深度神经网络结构等机器学习模型。对于黑盒攻击，对手使用大量样本查询目标分类器并记录标签。然后，它使用这个标记数据作为自己的训练数据来训练一个功能等效（即统计相似）的深度学习分类器，即代理模型。
    b. 成员推理攻击：对手旨在确定给定数据样本是否是训练数据的成员，即给定数据样本是否已用于训练感兴趣的机器学习算法（Nasr 等人，2018 年；Song 等人，2018 年）。 2018 年；Jia 等人 2019 年；莱诺和弗雷德里克森 2020 年）。Membership inference attack 是基于过度拟合的分析，以检查机器学习算法是否针对特定数据类型（例如特定类型的图像）进行了训练。通过了解训练机器学习算法分类的数据类型，对手可以更成功地设计后续攻击。
经济代写|博弈论代写Game Theory代考 请认准statistics-lab™

统计代写请认准statistics-lab™. statistics-lab™为您的留学生涯保驾护航。

金融工程代写

金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题，以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。

非参数统计代写

非参数统计指的是一种统计方法，其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型；这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。

广义线性模型代考

广义线性模型（GLM）归属统计学领域，是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。

术语 广义线性模型（GLM）通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归，以及方差分析和方差分析（仅含固定效应）。

有限元方法代写

有限元方法（FEM）是一种流行的方法，用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。

有限元是一种通用的数值方法，用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程（即一些边界值问题）。为了解决一个问题，有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分，称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的，它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的：用于求解的数值域，它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统，以模拟整个问题。然后，有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

随机分析代写


随机微积分是数学的一个分支，对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。

时间序列分析代写

随机过程，是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体，参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现，其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值（如1秒，5分钟，12小时，7天，1年），因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中，往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录，以得到其自身发展的规律。

回归分析代写

多元回归分析渐进（Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics）属于计量经济学领域，主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法，可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系，在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习和应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

R语言代写问卷设计与分析代写
PYTHON代写回归分析与线性模型代写
MATLAB代写方差分析与试验设计代写
STATA代写机器学习/统计学习代写
SPSS代写计量经济学代写
EVIEWS代写时间序列分析代写
EXCEL代写深度学习代写
SQL代写各种数据建模与可视化代写

经济代写|博弈论代写Game Theory代考|ECON90022

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如果你也在 怎样代写博弈论Game Theory这个学科遇到相关的难题，请随时右上角联系我们的24/7代写客服。

博弈论是对理性主体之间战略互动的数学模型的研究。它在社会科学的所有领域，以及逻辑学、系统科学和计算机科学中都有应用。最初，它针对的是两人的零和博弈，其中每个参与者的收益或损失都与其他参与者的收益或损失完全平衡。在21世纪，博弈论适用于广泛的行为关系；它现在是人类、动物以及计算机的逻辑决策科学的一个总称。

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写博弈论Game Theory方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写博弈论Game Theory代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写博弈论Game Theory相关的作业也就用不着说。

我们提供的博弈论Game Theory及其相关学科的代写，服务范围广, 其中包括但不限于:

  • Statistical Inference 统计推断
  • Statistical Computing 统计计算
  • Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
  • Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
  • (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
  • Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
  • Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
  • Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础
经济代写|博弈论代写Game Theory代考|ECON90022

经济代写|博弈论代写Game Theory代考|A Single Leader Multi-followers Stackelberg Game

In a single leader multiple followers (SLMF) game (Basar and Olsder 1999), the leader makes its optimal decision prior to the decisions of multiple followers. The Stackelberg game played by the leader is:
$$
\begin{array}{ll}
\min _{s^{\ell}, s^} & F\left(s^{\ell}, s^\right) \
\text { s.t. } & G\left(s^{\ell}, s^\right) \leq 0 \ & H\left(s^{\ell}, s^\right)=0
\end{array}
$$
where $F$ is the leader’s objective function, constrained by $G$ and $H ; s^{\prime}$ is the leader’s decision and $s^$ is in the set of the optimal solutions of the lower level problem: $$ s^ \in\left{\begin{array}{ll}
\underset{s_i}{\operatorname{argmin}} & f_i\left(s^t, s_i\right) \
\text { s.t. } & g_i\left(s^{\ell}, s_i\right) \leq 0 \
& h_i\left(s^{\ell}, s_i\right)=0
\end{array}\right} \quad \forall i=1, \ldots, m
$$
where $m$ is the number of followers, $f_i$ is the $i^{\text {th }}$ follower’s objective function constrained by $g_l$ and $h_i$

For the sake of simplicity, we assume the followers are not competing among themselves. This is usually a valid assumption in practice since adversaries rarely affect each other through their actions. In a Bayesian Stackelberg game, the followers may have many different types and the leader does not know exactly the types of adversaries it may face when solving its optimization problem. However, the distribution of the types of adversaries is known or can be inferred from past experience. The followers’ strategies and payoffs are determined by the followers’ types. The followers play their optimal responses to maximize the payoffs given the leader’s strategy. The Stackelberg equilibrium includes an optimal mixed strategy of the learner and corresponding optimal strategies of the followers.

Problem Definition Given the payoff matrices $R^{\ell}$ and $R^f$ of the leader and the $m$ followers of $n$ different types, find the leader’s optimal mixed strategy given that all followers know the leader’s strategy when optimizing their rewards. The leader’s pure strategies consist of a set of generalized linear learning models $\langle\phi(x), w\rangle$ and the followers’ pure strategies include a set of vectors performing data transformation $x \rightarrow x+\delta x$.

Given the payoff matrices $R^{\ell}$ and $R^f$ discussed in Section 13.5.3.3 (as shown in Table 13.6), let $r^f$ denote the follower’s maximum payoff, $\mathcal{L}$ and $\mathcal{F}$ denote the indices of the pure strategies in the leader’s policy $s^{\ell}$ and the follower’s policy $s^f$.

经济代写|博弈论代写Game Theory代考|Real Datasets

For the two real datasets we again use spam base (UCI Machine Learning Repository 2019) and web spam (LIBSVM Data 2019). The learning tasks are binary classification problems, differentiating spam or webspam from legitimate e-mail or websites.

Spambase Dataset Recall that in the spam base dataset, the task is to differentiate spam from legitimate e-mail. There are 4601 e-mail messages in the dataset including approximately 1800 spam messages. The dataset has 57 attributes and one class label. Training and test datasets are separate. The results are averaged over 10 random runs. The detailed results are shown in Table 13.8. The $f_{\mathrm{a}}=0$ column is left out for the same reason as explained earlier on the artificial datasets.

This dataset serves as an excellent example to demonstrate the power of the mixed strategy. In the cases where $p=0.1$, that is, when we assume legitimate e-mail is modified $10 \%$ of the time (while spam is always modified), the two equilibrium predictors Equi $^{* 1}$ and Equi ${ }^{* 2}$ exhibit very stable performance in terms of predictive accuracy. Their error rates fluctuate slightly at 0.37 regardless of how aggressively the test data has been modified. On the other hand, $S \mathrm{SM}^{* 1}$ and $S_{V M}{ }^{* 2}$ significantly outperform the equilibrium predictors Equi ${ }^{* 1}$ and Equi $^{* 2}$ and the invariant SVM when $f_{\mathrm{a}} \leq 0.5$. However, the performance of SVM ${ }^{* 1}$ and SVM ${ }^{* 2}$ dropped quickly as the attack gets more intense $\left(f_{\mathrm{a}}>0.5\right)$, much poorer than the equilibrium predictors. The mixed strategy, although not the best, demonstrates superb performance by agreeing with the winning models the majority of the time. The standard SVM has similar performance to the equilibrium predictors, behaving poorly as the attack gets intense. When $p=0.5$, that is, when legitimate e-mail is modified half of the time while all spam is modified, equilibrium predictors still demonstrate very stable performance while the performance of the equilibrium predictors Equi $^{* 1}$ and Equi ${ }^{* 2}$ deteriorates sharply right after the attack factor increases to 0.3 . The mixed strategy, again not the best predictor, demonstrates the most consistent performance among all the predictors given any attack intensity levels.

We also tested the case where the attack factor $f_{\mathrm{a}} \in(0,1)$ is completely random under uniform distribution for each attacked sample on this dataset. The probability of negative data being attacked increases gradually from 0.1 to 0.9 . The results are illustrated in Figure 13.11. Again, we observe similar behavior of all the predictors: stable equilibrium predictors, $\mathrm{SVM}^{* 1}, \mathrm{SVM}^{* 2}$, and SVM progressively deteriorating as $p$ increases. The mixed strategy, although weakened as more negative data is allowed to be modified, consistently lies in between the equilibrium predictors and the $S V M$ predictors.

经济代写|博弈论代写Game Theory代考|ECON90022

博弈论代考

经济代写|博弈论代写Game Theory代考|A Single Leader Multi-followers Stackelberg Game

在单一领导者多追随者 (SLMF) 博亦中（Basar 和 Olsder 1999），领导者在多个追随者做出决定之前做出 其最优决策。领导者玩的 Stackelberg 游戏是:
在哪里 $F$ 是领导者的目标函数，受制于 $G$ 和 $H ; s^{\prime}$ 是领导者的决定^在较低级别问题的最优解集合中:
在哪里 $m$ 是追随者的数量， $f_i$ 是个 $i^{\text {th }}$ 追随者的目标函数受制于 $g_l$ 和 $h_i$
为了简单起见，我们假设追随者之间没有竞争。这在实践中通常是一个有效的假设，因为对手很少通过他 们的行动相互影响。在贝叶斯 Stackelberg 博恋中，追随者可能有许多不同的类型，领导者在解决其优化 问题时并不知道它可能面临的对手的确切类型。然而，对手类型的分布是已知的，或者可以从过去的经验 中推断出来。追随者的策略和收益由追随者的类型决定。追随者根据领导者的策略发挥他们的最佳反应以 最大化收益。Stackelberg 均衡包括学习者的最优混合策略和跟随者的相应最优策略。
问题定义给定支付矩阵 $R^{\ell}$ 和 $R^f$ 领导者和 $m$ 追随者 $n$ 不同的类型，找到领导者的最优混合策略，因为所有 追随者在优化他们的奖励时都知道领导者的策略。领导者的纯策略由一组广义线性学习模型组成 $\langle\phi(x), w\rangle$ 跟随者的纯策略包括一组执行数据转换的向量 $x \rightarrow x+\delta x$.
给定支付矩阵 $R^{\ell}$ 和 $R^f$ 在第 13.5.3.3 节中讨论过 (如表 13.6 所示)，让 $r^f$ 表示跟随者的最大收益， $\mathcal{L}$ 和 $\mathcal{F}$ 表示领导者政策中纯策略的指标 $s^{\ell}$ 和追随者的政策 $s^f$.

经济代写|博弈论代写Game Theory代考|Real Datasets

对于这两个真实数据集，我们再次使用垃圾邮件库 (UCI Machine Learning Repository 2019) 和网络垃圾 邮件 (LIBSVM Data 2019)。学习任务是二元分类问题，将垃圾邮件或网络垃圾邮件与合法电子邮件或网站 区分开来。

Spambase 数据集 回想一下，在垃圾邮件基础数据集中，任务是区分垃圾邮件和合法电子邮件。数据集中 有 4601 封电子邮件，包括大约 1800 封垃圾邮件。该数据集有 57 个属性和一个类标签。训练和测试数据 集是分开的。结果取 10 次随机运行的平均值。详细结果如表13.8所示。这 $f_{\mathrm{a}}=0$ 出于与前面在人工数据 集上解释的相同原因，列被遗漏了。
该数据集是展示混合策略强大功能的绝佳示例。在这种情况下 $p=0.1$ ，也就是说，当我们假设合法的电 子邮件被修改时 $10 \%$ 的时间 (而垃圾邮件总是被修改)，两个均衡预测器 Equi1 和装备 ${ }^{ 2}$ 在预测准确性 方面表现出非常稳定的性能。无论测试数据修改得多么激进，它们的错误率都在 0.37 处轻微波动。另一 方面， $S \mathrm{SM}^{* 1}$ 和 $S_{V M}{ }^{* 2}$ 显着优于均衡预测变量 Equi1 和装备 ${ }^{ 2}$ 和不变的 SVM 当 $f_{\mathrm{a}} \leq 0.5$. 但是，SVM 的性能1 和支持向量机 ${ }^{ 2}$ 随着攻击变得更加激烈而迅速下降 $\left(f_{\mathrm{a}}>0.5\right)$ ，比均衡预测变量差得多。混合策 略虽然不是最好的，但在大多数情况下都与获胜模型一致，因此表现出色。标准 SVM 具有与平衡预测器 相似的性能，随着攻击变得激烈，表现不佳。什么时候 $p=0.5$ ，也就是说，当合法电子邮件的一半时间 被修改而所有垃圾邮件都被修改时，平衡预测器仍然表现出非常稳定的性能，而平衡预测器 Equi 的性能 ${ }^{* 1}$ 和装备 $^{* 2}$ 在攻击因子增加到 0.3 后立即急剧恶化。混合策略 (同样不是最佳预测器) 在给定任何攻击强 度级别的所有预测器中展示了最一致的性能。
我们还测试了攻击因素的情况 $f_{\mathrm{a}} \in(0,1)$ 对于该数据集上的每个受攻击样本，在均匀分布下是完全随机 的。负面数据被攻击的概率从 0.1 逐渐增加到 0.9 。结果如图 13.11 所示。同样，我们观察到所有预测变 量的相似行为: 稳定均衡预测变量， $\mathrm{SVM}^{* 1}, \mathrm{SVM}^{* 2}$ ，并且 SVM 逐渐恶化为 $p$ 增加。混合策略虽然随着 更多负面数据被允许修改而减弱，但始终位于均衡预测变量和 $S V M$ 预测因子。

经济代写|博弈论代写Game Theory代考 请认准statistics-lab™

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金融工程代写

金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题，以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。

非参数统计代写

非参数统计指的是一种统计方法，其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型；这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。

广义线性模型代考

广义线性模型（GLM）归属统计学领域，是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。

术语 广义线性模型（GLM）通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归，以及方差分析和方差分析（仅含固定效应）。

有限元方法代写

有限元方法（FEM）是一种流行的方法，用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。

有限元是一种通用的数值方法，用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程（即一些边界值问题）。为了解决一个问题，有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分，称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的，它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的：用于求解的数值域，它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统，以模拟整个问题。然后，有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

随机分析代写


随机微积分是数学的一个分支，对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。

时间序列分析代写

随机过程，是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体，参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现，其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值（如1秒，5分钟，12小时，7天，1年），因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中，往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录，以得到其自身发展的规律。

回归分析代写

多元回归分析渐进（Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics）属于计量经济学领域，主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法，可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系，在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习和应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

R语言代写问卷设计与分析代写
PYTHON代写回归分析与线性模型代写
MATLAB代写方差分析与试验设计代写
STATA代写机器学习/统计学习代写
SPSS代写计量经济学代写
EVIEWS代写时间序列分析代写
EXCEL代写深度学习代写
SQL代写各种数据建模与可视化代写

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|ECON1101

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如果你也在 怎样代写微观经济学Microeconomics这个学科遇到相关的难题，请随时右上角联系我们的24/7代写客服。

微观经济学是研究稀缺性及其对资源的使用、商品和服务的生产、生产和福利的长期增长的影响，以及对社会至关重要的其他大量复杂问题的研究。

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写微观经济学Microeconomics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写微观经济学Microeconomics代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写微观经济学Microeconomics相关的作业也就用不着说。

我们提供的微观经济学Microeconomics及其相关学科的代写，服务范围广, 其中包括但不限于:

  • Statistical Inference 统计推断
  • Statistical Computing 统计计算
  • Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
  • Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
  • (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
  • Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
  • Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
  • Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|ECON1101

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Descriptive and Normative Economics

The last sentence in the discussion about regularities stated that the study of (micro-) economics allows us to understand the functioning of the economy. This is the result of descriptive or positive economics as approach. The findings are typically expressed as conclusions of models. These models are based on assumptions, and the conclusions follow by strict logic from the assumptions. Mathematics serve as a tool to guarantee stringency. Thus, descriptive economics are based on the rationality of science, and the goal is to find answers that are right or wrong. The model of supply and demand gives us correct answers if and only if the assumptions hold. Descriptive economics work with hypotheses, data collection, falsification, theories, and models.

In normative economics, values play a prominent role. This approach tries to find solutions to everyday problems. When I began writing this book, the COVID-19 pandemic was still taking its toll around the world. Schools or businesses struggled with how to open in the usual way, and that depended on many values – how much weight we give to scientific knowledge, how much we care about the lives of others, how much we fear becoming infected, how important material goods are, how important social contacts are, and more. It should not come as a surprise that there were disagreements on those values. Normative economics gives advise often based on descriptive models by including values.

For example, an answer to the question of how rent controls will affect supply on the housing market and the quality of housing can be answered by descriptive models. In the future we can check whether the predictions were right or wrong. The question of whether rent controls are a good approach in cities where rents continuously increase, so that people with smaller incomes are driven out of desirable neighborhoods, involves ethical values as well as how rent controls affect the supply and cost of housing.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Industrial Organization

Industrial organization focuses on the interaction between firms, industries, and markets. Bain (1968) contributed strongly to what is known as the Harvard tradition with the structure/conduct/performance paradigm (SCP). According to this paradigm, the specific market structure of an industry – with its level of competition, product differentiation, cost, and degree of vertical integration – determines the conduct of firms (pricing, innovation, investment, advertising), and from this follows market performance (efficiency, profit, innovation rate). Director and Stigler, on the other hand, started the Chicago tradition stressing the functioning of markets with enough real or potential competition. This leads to a strong mistrust of government intervention. Success, according to the Chicago tradition, is not a question of SCP with low competition but of excellence of some outstanding firms (Tirole 2000 ).

Important aspects of SCP are monopoly power of a single firm in a market or oligopolistic structures with few competitors. Such structures lead to strategic behavior of the firms when setting prices. They are deviations from the ideal model of a perfectly competitive market, the only one guaranteeing an efficient market outcome. It should be clear that the proponents of the Harvard tradition worry much more about the competition in actual markets than the proponents of the Chicago tradition.

This definition clarifies that game theory can be a preferred means for the analysis of institutions. There are five different types of rules (or regularities):
1) There are conventions observed by self-control.
2) We have ethical rules with which we comply by imperative obligation; Kant’s categorical imperative is an example with regard to generally applicable laws.
3) Others impose the observation of customs.
4) Control by others enforces following private formal rules; organizational rules belong to this group.
5) Law enforcement agencies demand observance of public laws.
The degree of observance of rules or institutions can explain differences in welfare between countries (Acemoglu and Robinson 2012).

Neoclassical economics work with a model of man called homo economicus. This actor knows the future and because of this knowledge can choose the best alternative without spending time or resources. Few economists see this as a realistic description but models like supply and demand provide reasonable results based on the behavior of a homo economicus.

NIE assumes different characteristics for economic actors. They do not know the future and accordingly must rely on incomplete information. In addition, limited rationality describes their behavior and decision-making. They try to act rationally but sometimes fail. Maximising benefits becomes impossible; instead, the actors of NIE employ satisficing, the choice of an acceptable solution (Simon 1955). Furthermore, market exchanges are no longer without price; there are transaction costs (Williamson 1985). Anyone who has been an economic actor will feel much more comfortable with the assumptions of NIE. Behavioral economics nudge the model of man in an even more realistic direction by describing in which ways we fail to behave rationally (Thaler 2015).

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|ECON1101

微观经济学代考

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Descriptive and Normative Economics

关于规律性讨论的最后一句话指出，（微观）经济学的研究使我们能够理解经济的运作。这是描述性或实证经济学方法的结果。调查结果通常表示为模型的结论。这些模型基于假设，并且结论遵循来自假设的严格逻辑。数学作为保证严格性的工具。因此，描述经济学基于科学的合理性，其目标是找到正确或错误的答案。当且仅当假设成立时，供需模型才能给我们正确的答案。描述性经济学与假设、数据收集、证伪、理论和模型一起工作。

在规范经济学中，价值观起着突出的作用。这种方法试图找到解决日常问题的方法。当我开始写这本书时，COVID-19 大流行仍在世界范围内造成损失。学校或企业为如何以通常的方式开学而苦苦挣扎，这取决于许多价值观——我们对科学知识的重视程度、我们对他人生命的关心程度、我们对被感染的恐惧程度、物质产品的重要性是，社交联系的重要性等等。对这些价值观存在分歧不足为奇。规范经济学通常根据描述性模型提供建议，包括价值观。

例如，租金管制将如何影响住房市场供应和住房质量的问题可以通过描述性模型来回答。将来我们可以检查预测是否正确。在租金不断上涨的城市，租金管​​制是否是一个好方法，以至于收入较低的人被赶出理想的社区，这个问题涉及道德价值观以及租金管制如何影响住房供应和成本。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Industrial Organization

产业组织侧重于企业、产业和市场之间的相互作用。贝恩 (1968) 以结构/行为/绩效范式 (SCP) 对所谓的哈佛传统做出了重大贡献。根据这种范式，一个行业的特定市场结构——包括竞争程度、产品差异化、成本和垂直整合程度——决定了公司的行为（定价、创新、投资、广告），并由此得出市场绩效（效率、利润、创新率）。另一方面，Director 和 Stigler 开创了芝加哥传统，强调具有足够真实或潜在竞争的市场运作。这导致对政府干预的强烈不信任。成功，根据芝加哥的传统，

SCP 的重要方面是单个公司在市场中的垄断力量或几乎没有竞争对手的寡头垄断结构。这种结构导致公司在设定价格时采取战略行为。它们偏离了完全竞争市场的理想模型，这是唯一能保证有效市场结果的模型。应该清楚的是，哈佛传统的支持者比芝加哥传统的支持者更担心实际市场中的竞争。

这个定义阐明了博弈论可以成为制度分析的首​​选方法。有五种不同类型的规则（或规则）：
1）有自我控制所遵守的约定。
2) 我们有道德规则，我们必须遵守这些规则；康德的绝对命令是关于普遍适用法律的一个例子。
3) 他人实施海关观察。
4) 他人控制强制遵循私人正式规则；组织规则属于这一组。
5) 执法机构要求遵守公法。
遵守规则或制度的程度可以解释国家之间福利的差异（Acemoglu 和 Robinson 2012）。

新古典经济学使用一种称为经济人的人模型。这位演员知道未来，并且因为有了这些知识，可以在不花费时间或资源的情况下选择最佳选择。很少有经济学家认为这是一个现实的描述，但供求等模型根据经济人的行为提供了合理的结果。

NIE 假设经济参与者具有不同的特征。他们不知道未来，因此必须依赖不完整的信息。此外，有限理性描述了他们的行为和决策。他们试图理性行事，但有时会失败。利益最大化变得不可能；相反，NIE 的参与者使用令人满意的方法，选择可接受的解决方案 (Simon 1955)。此外，市场交易不再没有价格；存在交易成本（Williamson 1985）。任何当过经济参与者的人都会对 NIE 的假设感到舒服得多。行为经济学通过描述我们无法理性行事的方式，将人的模型推向更现实的方向（Thaler 2015）。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考 请认准statistics-lab™

统计代写请认准statistics-lab™. statistics-lab™为您的留学生涯保驾护航。

金融工程代写

金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题，以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。

非参数统计代写

非参数统计指的是一种统计方法，其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型；这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。

广义线性模型代考

广义线性模型（GLM）归属统计学领域，是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。

术语 广义线性模型（GLM）通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归，以及方差分析和方差分析（仅含固定效应）。

有限元方法代写

有限元方法（FEM）是一种流行的方法，用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。

有限元是一种通用的数值方法，用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程（即一些边界值问题）。为了解决一个问题，有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分，称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的，它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的：用于求解的数值域，它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统，以模拟整个问题。然后，有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

随机分析代写


随机微积分是数学的一个分支，对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。

时间序列分析代写

随机过程，是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体，参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现，其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值（如1秒，5分钟，12小时，7天，1年），因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中，往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录，以得到其自身发展的规律。

回归分析代写

多元回归分析渐进（Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics）属于计量经济学领域，主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法，可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系，在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习和应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

R语言代写问卷设计与分析代写
PYTHON代写回归分析与线性模型代写
MATLAB代写方差分析与试验设计代写
STATA代写机器学习/统计学习代写
SPSS代写计量经济学代写
EVIEWS代写时间序列分析代写
EXCEL代写深度学习代写
SQL代写各种数据建模与可视化代写

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|ECON1001

Posted on by statistics-lab

如果你也在 怎样代写微观经济学Microeconomics这个学科遇到相关的难题，请随时右上角联系我们的24/7代写客服。

微观经济学是研究稀缺性及其对资源的使用、商品和服务的生产、生产和福利的长期增长的影响，以及对社会至关重要的其他大量复杂问题的研究。

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写微观经济学Microeconomics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写微观经济学Microeconomics代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写微观经济学Microeconomics相关的作业也就用不着说。

我们提供的微观经济学Microeconomics及其相关学科的代写，服务范围广, 其中包括但不限于:

  • Statistical Inference 统计推断
  • Statistical Computing 统计计算
  • Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
  • Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
  • (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
  • Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
  • Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
  • Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|ECON1001

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Laws and Regularities

Civil engineers, project managers, and economists have quite different views because of their professional backgrounds. Civil engineering students endeavor to understand the world of objects. One of the most important fields they encounter is Newtonian mechanics. Here, Newton’s laws of motion reign supreme assigning absolute values to mass, distance, and time. These laws of motion serve civil engineers well to design complex structures even 350 years after their publication in 1687 (Figure 1.3).

Newton’s thoughts became paradigmatic in defining the term natural law. However, this does not allow us today to think of natural laws as universally applicable. Neither relativity theory nor quantum mechanics are compatible with Newton’s laws. Each theory has its domain; civil engineers work with large bodies at rest and for such problems Newton provides the tools.

Newton’s laws and physics are more generally of fundamental importance in philosophy of science. Here, we find two ways of discovering knowledge, by deduction and induction. There exists an asymmetry between the two. An inductive approach is characterized by observation of data and a subsequent summation into a more general statement. These statements take the form of a universal proposition such as the famous “all swans are white”. A single observation of a black swan gives us irrefutable proof that the universal proposition is wrong. This leads to the principle of falsification (Popper 2002, first published in 1935). As it is not possible to give proof by induction, we must work with hypotheses and their falsification (deductive approach). If hypotheses such as Newton’s laws withstand all serious attempts of falsification, then the hypotheses can be understood as corroborated. After more than 350 years, Newton’s laws are well corroborated within its domain, but we have also learned that they are not universally valid. By falsification, we can never gain absolute knowledge, we are rather edging closer by increasing the verisimilitude (closeness to knowledge). The basic understanding is then that all knowledge is conjectural and hypothetical.

In sum, we do not know a single universally applicable law; assuming their existence is a leap of faith. This shall not discredit a metaphysical discussion of the problem, where we face the validity of arguments. Following this path would lead us deep into ontology, philosophy of the mind, and epistemology. I will not follow that path here.

I would like to describe instead the scientific status of economics. If we accept that laws are based on regularities, then the question of their character arises. Two basic possibilities are imaginable: (i) law of causality and (ii) principle of causality. I can leave open the question of how to understand causality because it does not impact the argument. Typical answers are that nature is organized in the way of causality, that it is a human habit of interpreting the world (Hume), or that it is a way of human thinking (Kant). The idea of verisimilitude opposes the belief that we can understand the causal organization of nature, even if it should exist. Whether it is habitual or cognitive matters little if we take an instrumental view of causality.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Focus and Goals

Mainstream and construction economics concentrate on the efficiency of production. Here, the allocation of goods is important. There is nothing wrong with this concentration as long as we keep in mind that life also has other aspects. An aspect that finds less interest in microeconomics is equity, the distribution of income (Piketty 2013). Sen (1999) stresses personal freedom as a framework to evaluate economic outcomes and not only growth of the gross domestic product, a materialistic stance. He uses five types of freedom for his analysis: (i) political freedom, (ii) economic advantages, (iii) social chances, (iv) transparency, and (v) security. This provides a different focus on equity. If you are interested, you are encouraged to discover the arguments, but this cannot be goal of construction microeconomics.

Economics and especially microeconomics study market efficiency and thus provide specific answers to such questions. Civil engineering also has a focus by specialising in safe and user-friendly design and construction for the built environment. However, I would assert that the reach of economics is more encompassing than that of civil engineering. We need only to think of women and their rights 150 years ago. Their economic freedom was very limited – they were not free to sign contracts. Changes since then have affected not only the economic but also the political and social standing of women. These spheres are interconnected and progress in one entails development in the others. The social acceptance of women engaging in work outside home (Rosie the Riveter) required the right to enter into contracts and the income provided for economic independence. Work requires education, and this is, in turn, a very strong determinant in reducing population growth (Sen 1999). Overpopulation leads to contamination (e.g. $\mathrm{CO}_2$ emissions) of our environment beyond its capacity: Economics are vital. I would follow the thoughts of Stigler (portrait below) that economics touches us all more directly than construction. You may also think of Bill Clinton’s successful campaign slogan in 1992, “It’s the economy, stupidP”

Microeconomics uses mostly neoclassical concepts, while Keynesian economics are influential in macroeconomics. For the travel from microeconomics to construction microeconomics, I will rely on the broad shoulders of many classical and neoclassical economists. You will encounter some of them in the portraits interspersed throughout the book. In recent times, others have widened the neoclassical perspective, namely:

  • Coase, North, Williamson (institutional economics)
  • Simon, Kahneman, Shiller, Thaler (behavioral economics)
  • Tirole, Roth, Shapley (game theory)
  • Nash, Milgrom, Wilson (auction theory)
  • Akerlof, Spence, Stiglitz (economics of information)
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|ECON1001

微观经济学代考

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Laws and Regularities

土木工程师、项目经理和经济学家由于专业背景不同，观点也大相径庭。土木工程专业的学生努力理解物体的世界。他们遇到的最重要的领域之一是牛顿力学。在这里，牛顿运动定律至高无上，为质量、距离和时间分配绝对值。即使在 1687 年出版 350 年后，这些运动定律仍能很好地帮助土木工程师设计复杂的结构（图 1.3）。

牛顿的思想成为定义自然法这个术语的典范。然而，这不允许我们今天认为自然法则是普遍适用的。相对论和量子力学都不符合牛顿定律。每种理论都有其领域；土木工程师与静止的大型物体一起工作，牛顿为此类问题提供了工具。

牛顿定律和物理学在科学哲学中具有更普遍的基础重要性。在这里，我们发现了两种发现知识的方法，即演绎法和归纳法。两者之间存在不对称性。归纳法的特点是观察数据并随后总结成更一般的陈述。这些陈述采用普遍命题的形式，例如著名的“所有天鹅都是白色的”。一次对黑天鹅的观察就为我们提供了无可辩驳的证据，证明普遍命题是错误的。这引出了证伪原则（Popper 2002，首次发表于 1935 年）。由于不可能通过归纳法给出证明，我们必须使用假设及其证伪（演绎法）。如果像牛顿定律这样的假设经得起所有严肃的证伪尝试，那么假设可以被理解为得到证实。350 多年后，牛顿定律在其领域内得到了很好的证实，但我们也了解到它们并非普遍有效。通过证伪，我们永远无法获得绝对知识，而是通过增加真实性（接近知识）来更接近。基本的理解是所有知识都是推测和假设的。

总之，我们不知道一个普遍适用的法律；假设它们的存在是一种信仰的飞跃。这不应使我们面临论证有效性的问题的形而上学讨论不可信。遵循这条道路将带领我们深入本体论、心灵哲学和认识论。我不会在这里走那条路。

我想描述一下经济学的科学地位。如果我们承认法律是基于规律性的，那么它们的性质问题就会出现。可以想象两种基本的可能性：（i）因果关系法则和（ii）因果关系原则。我可以保留如何理解因果关系的问题，因为它不会影响论点。典型的答案是，自然是以因果关系的方式组织起来的，它是人类解释世界的习惯（休谟），或者它是人类的一种思维方式（康德）。逼真的想法反对我们可以理解自然的因果组织的信念，即使它应该存在。如果我们对因果关系采取工具性观点，那么无论是习惯还是认知都无关紧要。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Focus and Goals

主流和建筑经济学关注生产效率。在这里，货物的分配很重要。只要我们牢记生活还有其他方面，这种专注就没有错。对微观经济学不太感兴趣的一个方面是公平，即收入分配（Piketty 2013）。Sen (1999) 强调个人自由是评估经济成果的框架，而不仅仅是国内生产总值的增长，这是一种唯物主义的立场。他使用五种类型的自由进行分析：(i) 政治自由，(ii) 经济优势，(iii) 社会机会，(iv) 透明度，和 (v) 安全。这提供了对公平的不同关注。如果你有兴趣，鼓励你去发现论据，但这不是建筑微观经济学的目标。

经济学，尤其是微观经济学研究市场效率，从而为此类问题提供具体答案。土木工程也有一个重点，专门为建筑环境进行安全和用户友好的设计和施工。但是，我要断言，经济学的范围比土木工程的范围更广。我们只需想想 150 年前的妇女及其权利。他们的经济自由非常有限——他们不能自由签订合同。自那时以来的变化不仅影响了妇女的经济地位，而且还影响了妇女的政治和社会地位。这些领域相互关联，一个领域的进步必然导致其他领域的发展。从事外出工作的妇女（铆工罗西）的社会接受度需要签订合同的权利和为经济独立提供的收入。工作需要教育，而这又是减少人口增长的一个非常强大的决定因素（Sen 1999）。人口过剩导致污染（例如C欧2排放）超出我们环境的能力：经济是至关重要的。我会遵循斯蒂格勒（下图）的想法，即经济学比建筑更直接地触及我们所有人。你可能还会想起比尔·克林顿 (Bill Clinton) 1992 年成功的竞选口号，“It’s the economy, stupidP”

微观经济学主要使用新古典主义概念，而凯恩斯主义经济学对宏观经济学有影响。从微观经济学到建筑微观经济学的旅程，我将依靠许多古典和新古典经济学家的宽阔肩膀。您会在书中穿插的肖像中遇到其中一些人。最近，其他人拓宽了新古典主义的视角，即：

  • Coase, North, Williamson（制度经济学）
  • Simon、Kahneman、Shiller、Thaler（行为经济学）
  • 梯若尔、罗斯、沙普利（博弈论）
  • Nash、Milgrom、Wilson（拍卖理论）
  • Akerlof、Spence、Stiglitz（信息经济学）
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考 请认准statistics-lab™

统计代写请认准statistics-lab™. statistics-lab™为您的留学生涯保驾护航。

金融工程代写

金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题，以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。

非参数统计代写

非参数统计指的是一种统计方法，其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型；这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。

广义线性模型代考

广义线性模型（GLM）归属统计学领域，是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。

术语 广义线性模型（GLM）通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归，以及方差分析和方差分析（仅含固定效应）。

有限元方法代写

有限元方法（FEM）是一种流行的方法，用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。

有限元是一种通用的数值方法，用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程（即一些边界值问题）。为了解决一个问题，有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分，称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的，它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的：用于求解的数值域，它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统，以模拟整个问题。然后，有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

随机分析代写


随机微积分是数学的一个分支，对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。

时间序列分析代写

随机过程，是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体，参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现，其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值（如1秒，5分钟，12小时，7天，1年），因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中，往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录，以得到其自身发展的规律。

回归分析代写

多元回归分析渐进（Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics）属于计量经济学领域，主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法，可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系，在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习和应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

R语言代写问卷设计与分析代写
PYTHON代写回归分析与线性模型代写
MATLAB代写方差分析与试验设计代写
STATA代写机器学习/统计学习代写
SPSS代写计量经济学代写
EVIEWS代写时间序列分析代写
EXCEL代写深度学习代写
SQL代写各种数据建模与可视化代写

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|ECON1120

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如果你也在 怎样代写宏观经济学Macroeconomics这个学科遇到相关的难题，请随时右上角联系我们的24/7代写客服。

宏观经济学，对国家或地区经济整体行为的研究。它关注的是了解整个经济的事件，如商品和服务的生产总量、失业水平和价格的一般行为。

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写宏观经济学Macroeconomics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写宏观经济学Macroeconomics代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写宏观经济学Macroeconomics相关的作业也就用不着说。

我们提供的宏观经济学Macroeconomics及其相关学科的代写，服务范围广, 其中包括但不限于:

  • Statistical Inference 统计推断
  • Statistical Computing 统计计算
  • Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
  • Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
  • (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
  • Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
  • Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
  • Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础
经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|ECON1120

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Pump-Priming Debates in America

It is now apparent that Tinbergen built a strong case for an active economic policy, although he disputed some forms of interventionism, in particular on wages. His theoretical macro-dynamic models as well as his econometric works were guided by the search for useful economic policies that would ensure the stability of the system and the damping out of fluctuations, something that was present since he wrote his thesis in 1929. In the previous section, we saw that he also looked for policies that would help the economy obtain higher levels of production and employment. Tinbergen’s position in Europe ensured a large diffusion of his ideas which were endorsed by many other European econometricians.

The situation in the USA was quite different; although there were many American econometricians, led in particular by Charles Roos at the Cowles Commission, discussions of macro-dynamic models and fiscal policy were scarce during their winter meetings. Most economists remained skeptical of the possibilities offered by public intervention, especially financed by a deficit, viewed as the source of important distorsions. Few of them participated actively in the policies put in place by the New Deal; although Roos became the Research Director of the National Recovery Administration this experience seemed at odds with his models based on the intertemporal maximization of profits ${ }^8$; the NRA itself was disbanded in 1935, after Roosevelt’s first term saw the rise of a coalition of businessmen and conservatives that was largely successful in convincing the Supreme Court to repel many laws of the first New Deal. Roosevelt himself was not in favor of continuing the de facto deficit that characterized his first term (Barber, 1996: 100, 102 ff.) and his second term began with a victory of the “budget-balancers” in the public finance battle, leading to an almost balanced budget in 1937.

This context dramatically changed in the autumn of 1937, when a new recession led in a few months to a $40 \%$ drop in production and a rise of unemployment from $14 \%$ to $19 \%$. While the autumn of 1929 remains today in memories as the beginning of the Great Depression, the crisis in the autumn of 1937 was an even bigger shock for the economists of the time, an “intellectually traumatic” episode (Salant, 1976: 15) in particular because the economy was still far from its full employment level (Barber, 1996: 104-105). It was this crisis and the widely diverging interpretations of its causes that shifted the tide of economists (reinforced by the growing influx of economists from central Europe), and which created the conditions for a return of massive deficits in the span of a few months. ${ }^9$ Hansen became the unofficial leader of the New Economics in America and carried with him the graduate students of Harvard’s economic department. ${ }^{10}$ It was only at this point that a macro-dynamic model integrating Keynesian ingredients was specifically built in the USA to explain and describe the consequences of the changes in fiscal policy during the past few years, with the aim to justify the perpetuation of a high level of expenditures.
Following this shift in attitudes, we find that an important point of contention among economists concerned the effects of budgetary policies: conservative economists defended at best temporary policies that would prime the pump of new investment and foster favorable conditions for profits (necessary for their version of pump-priming to work), before stepping aside to let the private sector work its way out of the depression. But this vision was put in question by the 1937 crisis, and the model developed by Hansen and Samuelson sought precisely to show why a single impulse of expenditures soon followed by the pulling back of the government would not be sufficient. It may seem counterintuitive that Hansen and Samuelson would reject a policy of pump-priming, which is why it is important to insert their opinion in the American debate on this question. We see that Tinbergen had yet another position from the point of view of this debate, because he had justified the possibility of pump-priming with the idea that the coordination between private parties could fail to establish a high equilibrium which could be obtained only after some help from the government and not from the business world.

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|The Role of Public Expenditures

Samuelson’s discussion of the interaction between the accelerator and the multiplier was firmly rooted in the previous work of the econometricians. We have already underlined that he viewed his model as “so simple that it provides a useful introduction to the mathematical theory of [Tinbergen’s] work” (Samuelson, 1939a: 78). The second article, published in the Journal of Political Economy, also opened with a discussion of the contributions to the accelerator and the multiplier, their unification by Harrod, Haberler and Hansen, and a presentation of Frisch’s clarifications of the role of depreciation and the necessity of having a determinate model (Samuelson, 1939b: 785, 789). Although the model was very simple, it was still uncommon to find determinate systems relying on dynamic equations and Samuelson thus participated in the first movement of the “macrodynamist” econometricians, which had begun in the early 1930s. The fact that he used it explicitly to discuss the effect of an economic policy reinforces this link.

His model was in part a reaction against the idea, perhaps too simplistic, of the multiplier and the light it shed on government spending, which obscured the “subsidiary relations and processes” (Samuelson, 1939a: 75), in particular the dynamic effects of government spending, with the aim to show that an increase of public expenditures could be the cause of fluctuations in investment. ${ }^{27}$ Samuelson eased into the model by presenting several numerical computations, tables and decomposition by component (consumption, investment and government expenditures) of the trajectory of the economy for different values of the propensity to consume and what he called the “relation,” the name given to the accelerator by Harrod. Pointing out the variety of movements that could arise from this model, he then proceeded to build a formal, determinate system to study its qualitative behavior and showcase the interest of mathematical methods. ${ }^{28}$ The system is made up of two behavioral equations and an equilibrium condition ${ }^{29}$ :
$$
\begin{gathered}
Y_t=g_t+C_t+I_t, \
C_t=\alpha Y_{t-1}, \
I_t=\beta\left[C_t-C_{t-1}\right] .
\end{gathered}
$$
Inserting 7.7 in 7.8 and the resulting equation in 7.6 , we obtain a difference equation in $Y$ with two lags:
$$
Y_t=g_t+\alpha[1+\beta] Y_{t-1}-\alpha \beta Y_{t-2},
$$
so that the knowledge of income in two periods would allow the derivation of the subsequent trajectory of the system.

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|ECON1120

宏观经济学代考

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Pump-Priming Debates in America

现在很明显，丁伯根为积极的经济政策建立了强有力的理由，尽管他对某些形式的干预主义提出异议，尤其是在工资方面。他的理论宏观动力学模型以及他的计量经济学著作都以寻找有用的经济政策为指导，这些政策将确保系统的稳定性和波动的抑制，这是他在 1929 年撰写论文以来就存在的东西。上一节，我们看到他还寻找有助于经济获得更高水平生产和就业的政策。丁伯根在欧洲的地位确保了他的思想得到广泛传播，并得到许多其他欧洲计量经济学家的认可。

美国的情况完全不同。尽管有许多美国计量经济学家，尤其是考尔斯委员会的查尔斯·鲁斯 (Charles Roos) 为首，但他们在冬季会议上很少讨论宏观动态模型和财政政策。大多数经济学家仍然对公共干预所提供的可能性持怀疑态度，尤其是在财政赤字的情况下，被视为严重扭曲的根源。他们中很少有人积极参与新政制定的政策；尽管罗斯成为国家复兴管理局的研究主任，但这段经历似乎与他基于跨期利润最大化的模型不一致8; NRA 本身于 1935 年解散，当时罗斯福的第一个任期见证了商人和保守派联盟的崛起，该联盟在很大程度上成功说服最高法院驳回了第一次新政的许多法律。罗斯福本人不赞成延续他第一个任期的实际赤字 (Barber, 1996: 100, 102 ff.)，他的第二个任期以“预算平衡者”在公共财政斗争中的胜利开始，领导到 1937 年几乎达到平衡的预算。

这种情况在 1937 年秋天发生了巨大变化，新的经济衰退在几个月内导致了40%生产下降和失业率上升14%到19%. 虽然 1929 年秋天作为大萧条的开始在今天的记忆中仍然存在，但 1937 年秋天的危机对当时的经济学家来说是一个更大的冲击，这是一个“智力创伤”事件（Salant，1976：15）特别是因为经济仍远未达到充分就业水平（Barber，1996：104-105）。正是这场危机以及对其原因的广泛分歧的解释改变了经济学家的潮流（中欧经济学家的不断涌入加强了这一趋势），并为几个月内重新出现大规模赤字创造了条件。9汉森成为美国新经济学的非官方领袖，并带走了哈佛经济系的研究生。10正是在这一点上，美国专门建立了一个融合凯恩斯主义成分的宏观动态模型来解释和描述过去几年财政政策变化的后果，目的是证明高水平的长期存在是合理的。支出。
随着这种态度的转变，我们发现经济学家之间的一个重要争论点与预算政策的影响有关：保守派经济学家最多为临时政策辩护，这些政策将启动新投资并为利润创造有利条件（他们的版本是必要的）泵启动工作），然后让私营部门努力摆脱萧条。但这一愿景因 1937 年的危机而受到质疑，而汉森和萨缪尔森开发的模型恰恰试图说明为什么紧接着政府撤回的单一支出冲动是不够的。汉森和萨缪尔森拒绝刺激政策似乎有悖常理，这就是为什么在美国关于这个问题的辩论中加入他们的观点很重要。

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|The Role of Public Expenditures

萨缪尔森关于加速器和乘数之间相互作用的讨论牢牢植根于计量经济学家的先前工作。我们已经强调过， 他认为自己的模型“非常简单，可以为 [Tinbergen] 工作的数学理论提供有用的介绍” (Samuelson， 1939a：78) 。第二篇文章发表在政治经济学杂志上，开篇也讨论了对加速器和乘数的贡献，Harrod、 Haberler 和 Hansen 对它们的统一，并介绍了 Frisch 对折旧作用和必要性的澄清有一个确定的模型 (Samuelson, 1939b: 785，789)。虽然模型非常简单，依赖于动态方程的确定系统仍然很少见，萨缪尔森 因此参加了 1930 年代初开始的”宏观动力学”计量经济学家的第一次运动。他明确地使用它来讨论经济政 策的影响这一事实加强了这种联系。
他的模型在一定程度上是对乘数及其对政府支出的影响的想法的一种反应，这种想法可能过于简单，这掩 盖了“辅助关系和过程” (Samuelson，1939a: 75)，特别是政府支出，目的是表明公共支出的增加可能 是投资波动的原因。 27 萨缪尔森通过提供几个数值计算、表格和按经济轨迹的组成部分（消费、投资和政 府支出）分解模型，针对不同的消费倾向值和他所谓的“关系”，给出的名称哈罗德的加速器。指出这个模 型可能产生的各种运动，然后他着手建立一个正式的、确定的系统来研究它的定性行为并展示数学方法的 兴趣。 ${ }^{28}$ 该系统由两个行为方程和一个平衡条件组成 ${ }^{29}$ :
$$
Y_t=g_t+C_t+I_t, C_t=\alpha Y_{t-1}, I_t=\beta\left[C_t-C_{t-1}\right]
$$
在 7.8 中揷入 7.7 并在 7.6 中揷入所得方程，我们得到一个差分方程 $Y$ 有两个滞后:
$$
Y_t=g_t+\alpha[1+\beta] Y_{t-1}-\alpha \beta Y_{t-2},
$$
因此，两个时期的收入知识将允许推导出系统的后续轨迹。

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考 请认准statistics-lab™

统计代写请认准statistics-lab™. statistics-lab™为您的留学生涯保驾护航。

金融工程代写

金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题，以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。

非参数统计代写

非参数统计指的是一种统计方法，其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型；这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。

广义线性模型代考

广义线性模型（GLM）归属统计学领域，是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。

术语 广义线性模型（GLM）通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归，以及方差分析和方差分析（仅含固定效应）。

有限元方法代写

有限元方法（FEM）是一种流行的方法，用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。

有限元是一种通用的数值方法，用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程（即一些边界值问题）。为了解决一个问题，有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分，称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的，它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的：用于求解的数值域，它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统，以模拟整个问题。然后，有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

随机分析代写


随机微积分是数学的一个分支，对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。

时间序列分析代写

随机过程，是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体，参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现，其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值（如1秒，5分钟，12小时，7天，1年），因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中，往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录，以得到其自身发展的规律。

回归分析代写

多元回归分析渐进（Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics）属于计量经济学领域，主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法，可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系，在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习和应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

R语言代写问卷设计与分析代写
PYTHON代写回归分析与线性模型代写
MATLAB代写方差分析与试验设计代写
STATA代写机器学习/统计学习代写
SPSS代写计量经济学代写
EVIEWS代写时间序列分析代写
EXCEL代写深度学习代写
SQL代写各种数据建模与可视化代写

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|ECON6002

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宏观经济学，对国家或地区经济整体行为的研究。它关注的是了解整个经济的事件，如商品和服务的生产总量、失业水平和价格的一般行为。

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写宏观经济学Macroeconomics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写宏观经济学Macroeconomics代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写宏观经济学Macroeconomics相关的作业也就用不着说。

我们提供的宏观经济学Macroeconomics及其相关学科的代写，服务范围广, 其中包括但不限于:

  • Statistical Inference 统计推断
  • Statistical Computing 统计计算
  • Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
  • Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
  • (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
  • Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
  • Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
  • Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础
经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|ECON6002

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Macro-Dynamics Rising to the Challenge of Instability

The idea that instability in the capitalist system of production was so severe that it could lead to a complete collapse of the economic system reflected a series of circumstances specific to the early 1930s. How influential was Tinbergen on other econometricians in proposing in his models this radical interpretation of instability?
Tinbergen was not alone to work on that issue. In 1934, Frisch also seriously considered the possibility of collapse, quite paradoxically because he is often thought of as the apostle of stable linear models (see Chap. 4). In 1935, discussions arising around nonlinear models at the Namur meeting of the Econometric Society showed however that Frisch sought to reinforce the idea that self-stabilizing mechanisms may fail to kick in, which meant that an appropriate political response was necessary.
A first illustration of this is found in Frisch’s 1934 work published in Econometrica in the form of a long monograph on “circulation planning” in which Frisch argued that besides “technical features” related to production, there exists other features related to the “circulation and exchange activity.” These features of a capitalistic economy may be responsible for other movements of the economy and the maladjustments between wants and production. ${ }^{26}$ As the Great Depression continued to have a lasting impact in Europe, Frisch thought that this type of approach was more appropriate to account for the ongoing situation and in particular the possibility that the groups composing the economy could involuntarily undermine each other’s position with the risk of pushing the economy into a never ending recession, due to a lack of information.

In several respects, the model used by Frisch was close to the model that Tinbergen developed in his 1932 pre-advice (Tinbergen, 1932). In both cases, the analysis highlighted the interdependencies between two firms (or two groups in Frisch’s case), but while Tinbergen was interested in emphasizing the possibility of two stable equilibria, a low and a high one, Frisch wanted to show the possibility that the economy may have two opposite “intrinsic tendencies towards contraction and expansion” (Frisch, 1934: 261).

Frisch developed a model in which the two groups which composed the economy exchanged at regular intervals of time, the purchasing power of each group depending on the volume of its sales to the other group in the previous period (each group being assumed to buy the goods he does not produce at constant prices). In the simplest case, Frisch assumed that the amount bought by a group is proportional to the amount of goods the other group managed to sell in the previous period, as expressed by these two equations:
$$
\begin{aligned}
& a_t=\alpha b_{t-1}, \
& b_t=\beta a_{t-1},
\end{aligned}
$$
where $a_t$ and $b_t$ are the amounts bought by the two groups respectively at time $t$ and $\alpha$ and $\beta$ are constants representing the sensitivity of the amount of goods produced. Frisch related those coefficients to the degree of optimism or pessimism of both groups depending on the situation. For given initial conditions, the development over time of the production of each group is made up of two components: a cycle of two time periods superimposed on a positive or negative exponential trend depending on the value of $\gamma=\sqrt{\alpha \beta}$. If $\gamma>1$, the cycle is superimposed on a rising trend. If $\gamma<1$, the trend is transient and the economy collapses. Thus the trajectory of the economy depends upon the coefficients representing the mood of both groups. If they are on average in a “spending mood,” meaning that $\gamma$ is higher than one, then the system will expand. If, on the contrary, they are on average in a “saving mood,” i.e. if $\gamma$ is lower than one, “the whole system will gradually dwindle down to nothing” (Frisch, 1934: 263, original emphasis).

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Tinbergen’s Analysis of the Multiplier

The problem of economic policies formed a central part of Tinbergen’s analysis from the onset of his interest in economic questions, as we have already underlined in Chap. 6. Tinbergen had applied his first models to a wide range of questions from wage policies to raw goods and tried to elucidate the mechanisms deemed the most important. After 1935, he began to build and estimate larger models that culminated in the publication of his two-volume study for the League of Nations Tinbergen (1939a, b). Discussions of the best economic policies formed a central part of those larger models, and the importance of these works for the development of economic analysis has been underlined many times. ${ }^2$

While these models had a profound impact on the discipline, we will not treat them in this book because they provide little information on the question of the stability of the economy. Instead, we would like to pay attention to other models developed at the same time by Tinbergen, which he used to answer topical questions and to bring a new perspective on problems often marred by the lack of complete formalisations. A case in point is the treatment by Tinbergen of the multiplier, which he developed in a 1937 paper published in the Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv (Tinbergen, 1937c). The meaningfulness of this paper lies in his theoretical conclusions for economic policies and the light it threw on the possibility of “pump-priming,” which was a subject of important debates in the USA at the same time.

The multiplier had been developed by Keynes and Kahn in the early 1930 s (Kahn, 1931, Keynes, 1933). ${ }^3$ In its simplest form, the idea was that a certain expenditure in the economy can lead to primary effects arising from the spending of the initial expenditure, but also to secondary effects when the workers receiving the primary wave spend their new income in the economy. Kahn’s approach, summarized by Tinbergen, was to argue that when a portion $k$ of the new income $I$ is spent, at a period $n$ after the initial expenditure, the new portion is equal to $k^n$. The addition of each additional income $k I+k^2 I+\cdots+k^n I$ formed a geometric series $\frac{I}{1-k}$, where $\frac{1}{1-k}$ is the Keynesian multiplier. For Tinbergen, this analysis was particularly interesting because it brought forward dynamic considerations, but this remained too crude to really inform economic policies.

Tinbergen believed that this neglected some important influences which he had accounted for in larger models, and that it was also possible to deal with those influences on the basis of smaller models. While there are ten variables in the model, it can be reduced to four main equations, as Tinbergen did himself in another paper (Tinbergen, 1937b). It is then always possible to find the aggregate level of employment from these equations and the employment in both sectors, with a relation given by Tinbergen between the level of employment in the two sectors and profits. All the variables are measured as deviations from their equilibrium value, and the unit of time is assumed to be four months.

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|ECON6002

宏观经济学代考

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Macro-Dynamics Rising to the Challenge of Instability

资本主义生产体系的不稳定性如此严重以至于可能导致经济体系彻底崩溃的想法反映了 20 世纪 30 年代初 期的一系列特定情况。丁伯根在他的模型中提出这种对不稳定性的激进解释，对其他计量经济学家有多大 影响?
廷伯根并不是唯一一个致力于解决这个问题的人。1934 年，Frisch 也认真考虑了崩溃的可能性，这很矛 盾，因为他通常被认为是稳定线性模型的倡导者 (见第 4 章)。1935 年，计量经济学会在那慕尔会议上 围绕非线性模型展开的讨论表明，弗里施试图强化自稳定机制可能无法发挥作用的观点，这意味着需要采 取适当的政治回应。
Frisch 1934 年在 Econometrica 上以长篇专着的形式发表了这方面的第一个例证，其中 Frisch 认为除了 与生产相关的“技术特征”外，还存在与“流通和交流活动。”资本主义经济的这些特征可能会导致经济的其 他运动以及需求与生产之间的失调。 ${ }^{26}$ 随着大萧条继续对欧洲产生持久影响，Frisch 认为这种方法更适合 解释当前的情况，特别是构成经济的群体可能不由自主地破坏彼此地位的风险由于缺乏信息，将经济推向 永无止境的衰退。
在几个方面，Frisch 使用的模型接近于 Tinbergen 在他 1932 年的预先建议中开发的模型 (Tinbergen， 1932)。在这两种情况下，分析都强调了两家公司 (或 Frisch 案例中的两个集团) 之间的相互依存关系， 但是虽然 Tinbergen 有兴趣强调两个稳定均衡的可能性，一个低均衡和一个高均衡，但 Frisch 想表明这 种可能性经济可能有两种相反的“收缩和扩张的内在趋势” (Frisch，1934：261)。

Frisch 开发了一个模型，其中构成经济的两个群体定期交换，每个群体的购买力取决于其在前一时期对另 一群体的销售量 (假设每个群体购买商品他不以不变的价格生产) 。在最简单的情况下，Frisch 假设一组 人购买的数量与另一组人在前一时期设法出售的商品数量成正比，如以下两个方程式所示:
$$
a_t=\alpha b_{t-1}, \quad b_t=\beta a_{t-1}
$$
在哪里 $a_t$ 和 $b_t$ 分别是两组在某时刻购买的数量 $t$ 和 $\alpha$ 和 $\beta$ 是代表商品生产量敏感性的常数。弗里施根据情况 将这些系数与两组人的乐观或悲观程度联系起来。对于给定的初始条件，每个组的生产随时间的发展由两 个部分组成: 两个时间段的循环叠加在正指数趋势或负指数趋势上，具体取决于 $\gamma=\sqrt{\alpha \beta}$. 如果 $\gamma>1$ ，周期叠加在上升趋势上。如果 $\gamma<1$ ，趋势是短暂的，经济崩溃。因此，经济的轨迹取决于代表两组情 “储葍情绪”，即如果 $\gamma$ 低于一，“整个系统将逐渐缩小为无” (Frisch，1934：263，原文强调) 。

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Tinbergen’s Analysis of the Multiplier

正如我们在第 1 章中强调的那样，从丁伯根对经济问题产生兴趣开始，经济政策问题就构成了他分析的核 心部分。6. 丁伯根将他的第一个模型应用于从工资政策到原材料的广泛问题，并试图阐明被认为最重要的 机制。1935 年之后，他开始构建和估计更大的模型，最终出版了他为国际联盟丁伯根 $(1939 a ， b)$ 所做的 两卷本研究。对最佳经济政策的讨论构成了这些较大模型的核心部分，这些著作对经济分析发展的重要性 已被多次强调。2
虽然这些模型对该学科产生了深远的影响，但我们不会在本书中讨论它们，因为它们提供的关于经济稳定 性问题的信息很少。相反，我们想关注 Tinbergen 同时开发的其他模型，他用这些模型来回答热门问题， 并为经常因缺乏完整形式化而受到损害的问题带来新的视角。一个典型的例子是 Tinbergen 对乘数的处 理，他在 1937 年发表于 Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv 的一篇论文 (Tinbergen，1937c) 中发展了这一 点。这篇论文的意义在于他对经济政策的理论结论，以及它对“刺激经济”可能性的启示，这同时也是美国 重要辩论的主题。
乘数是由凯恩斯和卡恩在 1930 年代早期开发的（卡恩， 1931 年，凯恩斯， 1933 年）。 ${ }^3$ 在最简单的形 式中，这个想法是，经济中的一定支出可以导致初始支出的支出产生的初级效应，但当接受初级波的工人 在经济中花费他们的新收入时，也会产生次级效应。卡恩的方法，由丁伯根总结，是认为当一部分 $k$ 的新 收入 $I$ 在一段时间内花费 $n$ 初始支出后，新部分等于 $k^n$. 每增加一笔收入 $k I+k^2 I+\cdots+k^n I$ 形成了一 个几何级数 $\frac{I}{1-k}$ ，在哪里 $\frac{1}{1-k}$ 是凯恩斯乘数。对 Tinbergen 来说，这种分析特别有趣，因为它提出了动 态考虑因素，但这仍然过于粗䊁，无法真正为经济政策提供信息。

Tinbergen 认为这忽略了他在较大模型中考虑的一些重要影响，并且也可以在较小模型的基础上处理这些 影响。虽然模型中有十个变量，但它可以简化为四个主要方程，正如 Tinbergen 在另一篇论文中所做的那 样 (Tinbergen, 1937b)。然后，总是可以从这些方程式和两个部门的就业率中找到总的就业水平，以及 Tinbergen 给出的两个部门的就业水平与利润之间的关系。所有变量均以其均衡值的偏差来衡量，时间单 位假定为四个月。

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考 请认准statistics-lab™

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金融工程代写

金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题，以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。

非参数统计代写

非参数统计指的是一种统计方法，其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型；这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。

广义线性模型代考

广义线性模型（GLM）归属统计学领域，是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。

术语 广义线性模型（GLM）通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归，以及方差分析和方差分析（仅含固定效应）。

有限元方法代写

有限元方法（FEM）是一种流行的方法，用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。

有限元是一种通用的数值方法，用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程（即一些边界值问题）。为了解决一个问题，有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分，称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的，它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的：用于求解的数值域，它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统，以模拟整个问题。然后，有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。

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随机分析代写


随机微积分是数学的一个分支，对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。

时间序列分析代写

随机过程，是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体，参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现，其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值（如1秒，5分钟，12小时，7天，1年），因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中，往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录，以得到其自身发展的规律。

回归分析代写

多元回归分析渐进（Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics）属于计量经济学领域，主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法，可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系，在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习和应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

R语言代写问卷设计与分析代写
PYTHON代写回归分析与线性模型代写
MATLAB代写方差分析与试验设计代写
STATA代写机器学习/统计学习代写
SPSS代写计量经济学代写
EVIEWS代写时间序列分析代写
EXCEL代写深度学习代写
SQL代写各种数据建模与可视化代写

经济代写|CS880 Game Theory

Posted on by statistics-lab

Statistics-lab™可以为您提供wisc.edu CS880 Game Theory博弈论课程的代写代考和辅导服务！

经济代写|CS880 Game Theory

CS880 Game Theory课程简介

The course may cover topics such as game theory, mechanism design, computational finance, and data analysis. Students may learn how to use programming languages and software tools to build and analyze economic models and simulations, and may also study how to apply these techniques to real-world economic problems.

Overall, this course seems to combine elements of economics, computer science, and mathematics to provide students with a unique set of skills and knowledge for analyzing and designing economic systems in a rapidly changing and increasingly complex world.

PREREQUISITES 

Project details and timeline
Project details and ideas can be found here (UW access only).

  • Feb 22: Short description of topic, goals and project team due (as part of HW1).
  • Mar 22: Up to one page report of progress, reference material, plans for the remainder of the semester. Before this date, please make an appointment with Shuchi to discuss potential topics and references.
  • May 3: Final project reports due.
  • May 5: Two projects (selected on the basis of the final reports) to be showcased during this lecture.

CS880 Game Theory HELP（EXAM HELP， ONLINE TUTOR）

问题 1.

  1. The stage game is shown in Table 1 .
    \begin{tabular}{c|c|c|}
    \hline & $\mathrm{H}$ & $\mathrm{L}$ \
    \hline \hline $\mathrm{H}$ & $(3,1)$ & $(0,0)$ \
    \hline $\mathrm{L}$ & $(1,2)$ & $(5,3)$ \
    \hline
    \end{tabular}
    Table 1: Stage game
    Consider the infinite repetition of the game in Table 1 with discounted criterion to evaluate payoffs. Find a subgame perfect equilibrium of this game such that
    (a) the equilibrium payoff of Players approach $(4,2)$ as $\delta \rightarrow 1$.
    (b) the equilibrium payoff of Players approach $(3,2)$ as $\delta \rightarrow 1$.

(a) To find a subgame perfect equilibrium (SPE) that approaches a payoff of $(4,2)$ as $\delta \rightarrow 1$, we need to find a strategy for each player that is optimal at each stage of the game, given that the game will continue indefinitely with some probability $\delta \in [0,1)$. One possible SPE is as follows:

  • In the first stage, Player 1 plays H and Player 2 plays L. This yields a payoff of $(3,1)$ for Player 1 and $(0,0)$ for Player 2.
  • In all subsequent stages, both players play the following strategy:
    • If the previous outcome was (H,L), play (H,L) again.
    • If the previous outcome was (L,H), play (L,H) again.
    • If the previous outcome was (H,H) or (L,L), play (L,H) with probability $p$ and (H,L) with probability $1-p$, where $p$ is the smallest value that satisfies the condition $\delta \geq \frac{1-p}{1+p}$.
    This strategy ensures that both players punish deviations from the outcome (L,H) by playing (L,H) in the next stage, but also allows for occasional cooperation by playing (H,L) with some probability. The value of $p$ ensures that the expected discounted payoff from deviating to (H,H) or (L,L) is less than the payoff from playing (L,H), so there is no profitable deviation.

The equilibrium payoff under this strategy is $(4,2)$ when $\delta \rightarrow 1$, because the players play (L,H) with probability 1 as $\delta$ approaches 1. Note that this is not the only SPE, and there may be other equilibria that also approach $(4,2)$ as $\delta \rightarrow 1$.

问题 2.

If we repeat prisoner’s dilemma game for two periods, how many strategies does each player have in this repeated game?

In a repeated prisoner’s dilemma game, each player has multiple strategies that they can use. One common strategy is called “tit-for-tat,” where a player cooperates in the first period and then in subsequent periods does whatever the other player did in the previous period.

If we repeat the game for two periods, each player has four possible strategies:

  1. Cooperate in both periods
  2. Defect in both periods
  3. Cooperate in the first period and then defect in the second period
  4. Defect in the first period and then cooperate in the second period

It’s important to note that the number of possible strategies increases with each additional period in a repeated game, making it more difficult to predict the outcome of the game.

Textbooks


• An Introduction to Stochastic Modeling, Fourth Edition by Pinsky and Karlin (freely
available through the university library here)
• Essentials of Stochastic Processes, Third Edition by Durrett (freely available through
the university library here)
To reiterate, the textbooks are freely available through the university library. Note that
you must be connected to the university Wi-Fi or VPN to access the ebooks from the library
links. Furthermore, the library links take some time to populate, so do not be alarmed if
the webpage looks bare for a few seconds.

此图像的alt属性为空；文件名为%E7%B2%89%E7%AC%94%E5%AD%97%E6%B5%B7%E6%8A%A5-1024x575-10.png
CS880 Game Theory

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经济代写|ECON1110 Microeconomics

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Statistics-lab™可以为您提供cornell.edu ECON1110 Microeconomics微观经济学课程的代写代考和辅导服务！

经济代写|ECON1110 Microeconomics

ECON1110 Microeconomics课程简介

Explanation and evaluation of how the price system operates in determining what goods are produced, how goods are produced, who receives income, and how the price system is modified and influenced by private organizations and government policy.

Forbidden Overlap: Students may not receive credit for both ECON 1110 and HADM 1410. ECON 1110 is not a prerequisite for ECON 1120.

PREREQUISITES 

The price system is a mechanism by which prices of goods and services are determined through the interaction of supply and demand in a market. The price system plays a crucial role in determining what goods are produced, how goods are produced, who receives income, and how the price system is modified and influenced by private organizations and government policy.

In a market economy, producers are guided by the signals provided by the price system to determine what goods and services to produce. Prices reflect the relative scarcity of resources and the preferences of consumers. Producers respond to these signals by allocating resources to the production of goods and services that are in high demand, and reducing production of goods and services that are in low demand.

The price system also determines how goods are produced, as producers are incentivized to use the most efficient methods of production that minimize costs and maximize profits. This incentivizes innovation and technological advancements in production methods.

ECON1110 Microeconomics HELP（EXAM HELP， ONLINE TUTOR）

问题 1.

What is the concept of utility? List some examples of utility provided in the book.
What are the two basic assumptions that economists make about individuals and firms?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of a market economy?
How does the author answer the question “why did the chicken cross the road”?

  1. Utility is a measure of the satisfaction or benefit that an individual derives from consuming a good or service. It is a subjective concept that varies from person to person and from situation to situation. Examples of utility provided in the book could include the pleasure someone gets from eating a delicious meal, the relief someone feels from taking a painkiller, or the sense of accomplishment someone experiences after completing a challenging task.
  2. The two basic assumptions that economists make about individuals and firms are:
  • Rationality: Individuals and firms are assumed to make rational decisions based on their preferences and constraints. They are assumed to weigh the costs and benefits of their choices and choose the option that maximizes their utility or profit.
  • Self-interest: Individuals and firms are assumed to act in their own self-interest and pursue their own goals. They are not assumed to care about the well-being of others, except insofar as it affects their own interests.
  1. Advantages of a market economy include:
  • Efficiency: Market economies tend to allocate resources efficiently, because prices act as signals that guide producers and consumers towards the most valued uses of resources.
  • Innovation: Market economies encourage innovation and entrepreneurship, because individuals and firms can earn profits by introducing new products or services or by finding more efficient ways of producing existing ones.
  • Choice: Market economies offer consumers a wide range of choices, because producers compete to offer products that meet consumers’ preferences.

Disadvantages of a market economy include:

  • Inequality: Market economies can lead to unequal distribution of income and wealth, because some individuals and firms may be more successful than others.
  • Externalities: Market economies may generate negative externalities, such as pollution or congestion, that are not reflected in market prices and can harm people who are not directly involved in the market.
  • Instability: Market economies may experience booms and busts, as prices and quantities fluctuate in response to changes in supply and demand.
  1. The author does not answer the question “why did the chicken cross the road” in the book, as it is not relevant to the economic concepts being discussed.

问题 2.

Explain why incentives matter.
Explain the term “creative destruction” and give two examples.
Why might you be able to save your face by cutting off your nose (if you are a black rhinoceros)?

  1. Incentives matter because they influence the behavior of individuals and firms. People respond to incentives by adjusting their actions in ways that are likely to maximize their benefits or minimize their costs. For example, if the government offers tax credits for investing in renewable energy, companies may be incentivized to invest in renewable energy projects in order to reduce their tax burden. If a company offers bonuses for meeting sales targets, employees may be incentivized to work harder to meet those targets and earn the bonuses. Understanding how incentives affect behavior is important for designing effective policies and strategies.
  2. “Creative destruction” is a term coined by economist Joseph Schumpeter to describe the process by which new innovations and technologies replace old ones, leading to economic growth and prosperity in the long run, but often causing short-term disruptions and hardships for workers and firms that are displaced by the new technologies. Two examples of creative destruction are:
  • The rise of the automobile industry in the early 20th century led to the decline of the horse-drawn carriage industry, causing many carriage makers and related industries to go out of business. However, the growth of the automobile industry created new jobs and opportunities for workers and suppliers in related industries.
  • The advent of the digital age has led to the decline of many traditional industries, such as newspapers and bookstores, as consumers increasingly turn to online sources for news and entertainment. However, the growth of the digital economy has created new jobs and opportunities in fields such as software development and e-commerce.
  1. Black rhinoceroses have a unique adaptation that allows them to save their face by cutting off their nose. Specifically, they have a prehensile upper lip that they can use to grasp and strip leaves from thorny plants without injuring their sensitive facial skin. This adaptation allows them to feed on plants that other herbivores may avoid due to their thorns. In some cases, a rhinoceros may accidentally injure its nose on a thorn, and in order to prevent infection and further damage, it may use its lower incisors to cut off the damaged part of the nose. While this may seem extreme, it allows the rhinoceros to continue feeding without risking further injury or infection, and the nose will often heal over time.

Textbooks


• An Introduction to Stochastic Modeling, Fourth Edition by Pinsky and Karlin (freely
available through the university library here)
• Essentials of Stochastic Processes, Third Edition by Durrett (freely available through
the university library here)
To reiterate, the textbooks are freely available through the university library. Note that
you must be connected to the university Wi-Fi or VPN to access the ebooks from the library
links. Furthermore, the library links take some time to populate, so do not be alarmed if
the webpage looks bare for a few seconds.

此图像的alt属性为空；文件名为%E7%B2%89%E7%AC%94%E5%AD%97%E6%B5%B7%E6%8A%A5-1024x575-10.png
ECON1110 Microeconomics

Statistics-lab™可以为您提供cornell.edu ECON1110 Microeconomics微观经济学课程的代写代考和辅导服务！ 请认准Statistics-lab™. Statistics-lab™为您的留学生涯保驾护航。