标签: ECON 2506

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|The Microeconomics Anti-Textbook

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微观经济学是主流经济学的一个分支,研究个人和企业在做出有关稀缺资源分配的决策时的行为以及这些个人和企业之间的相互作用。

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写微观经济学Microeconomics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写微观经济学Microeconomics代写方面经验极为丰富,各种代写微观经济学Microeconomics相关的作业也就用不着说。

我们提供的微观经济学Microeconomics及其相关学科的代写,服务范围广, 其中包括但不限于:

  • Statistical Inference 统计推断
  • Statistical Computing 统计计算
  • Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
  • Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
  • (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
  • Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
  • Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
  • Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|The Microeconomics Anti-Textbook

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Public Choice and the unsubtle bias against taxation, government spending and income redistribution

Unlike the basic description of the roles of government set out at the beginning of the Standard Text, the treatment of public choice varies across the texts. In our sample, a couple barely mention it, while most set out some of its central concepts in varying detail. Our Standard Text collects these to give a complete sketch. ${ }^{15}$

Public choice as an ideological project The unflattering picture of the public sector that emerges from public choice theory is no accident. British economist Charles Rowley, a prominent supporter of the approach, described the result of one of the first books on the subject, co-authored by James Buchanan: ‘The scene was set for a program of scientific endeavour that exposed government failure coupled to a program of moral philosophy that supported constitutional reform designed to limit government, even to the role of the nightwatchman state’ (our emphasis). ${ }^{16}$ A nightwatchman state is the libertarian capitalist ideal: a minimal state that does nothing more than operate a military for defence, police to deal with theft and violence, and a judicial system to enforce contracts and prevent fraud. ${ }^{17}$ The ‘constitutional reform’ Rowley refers to would strip governments of the ability to provide social insurance (healthcare, public education, unemployment insurance, pensions, childcare, assistance to the destitute and so on), to redistribute income in other ways, to regulate business and to address market failures. The result would be ‘democracy in chains’ – the title of American historian Nancy MacLean’s book about James Buchanan, with the subtitle ‘the radical right’s stealth plan for America’. Big business, owned or controlled largely by the wealthy, would be left the dominant force in society.

This extremist agenda has a powerful cult following, notably among right-wing billionaires, libertarian capitalist ‘think tanks’ and likeminded academics, but almost no popular support, hence the need for stealth in advancing their cause. Rowley was effectively saying that public choice theory was designed from the beginning to undermine support for collective action through government. In considering Buchanan’s economics, American economist Gary Mongiovi concluded that his work “is a modern manifestation of what [Karl] Marx called “vulgar economy”, that is, ruling-class ideology posing as science. ${ }^{18}$ Ironically, Buchanan himself was not shy about publicly accusing other economists of being ‘advocates for ideological interests’ – in this case, David Card and Alan Krueger, whose empirical findings about the minimum wage had no place in his ideology. ${ }^{19}$

Compare the textbook picture of the cost-efficient profit maximizing firm with the public choice story of cost-inefficient monopolistic government bureaucracies presided over by self-interested politicians with no interest in the public good. Compare the story of efficient markets, where market failures are the exception rather than the rule, with the story of inevitable government failure as policies are determined either by ignorant voters or by the power struggles of special interest groups. Even if there are real problems with market outcomes, the government cure is portrayed as worse than the disease. If a student accepts public choice theory uncritically – and no text that describes public choice ideas in some detail offers any critique – then reducing the size of the state by cutting taxes and spending, privatizing public services and so on starts to look attractive.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|The subtle bias against taxation, government spending and income redistribution

In a study of the rhetoric of the textbooks, American economist David George points out that given the order of topics in the texts, government ‘tends to be treated as an entity emerging only after the private sector has established itself.’ ${ }^{\prime} 9$ The government then “interferes’ with markets for private goods through taxes and regulation.

With taxes, the texts focus attention on how the ‘burden’ will be shared and on technical explanations of the efficiency cost of taxes. (Ironically, the goods usually chosen to illustrate the ‘efficiency loss’ of excise taxes are goods, such as fuel, cigarettes and alcohol, that have negative externalities. Hence, as discussed in Chapter 7 , there may be efficiency gains, not losses!)4 The benefits from increased government spending that taxes make possible are made much less clear. In a book already weighted towards the importance of attaining efficiency in the use of scarce resources, what choice is the reader invited to make when it comes to the equity-efficiency trade-off?

The emphasis on the inefficiency of taxes reinforces the examples given in the texts in the supply and demand applications (reviewed in Chapter 3 ). They are typically ones in which the government appears to mess things up: minimum wages increase unemployment, rent controls create apartment shortages, subsidies create inefficiencies and taxes create efficiency losses. Warnings about ‘government failures’ (particularly if public choice theory is emphasized) further reinforce this. All this might have been what former US president Ronald Reagan was referring to when he said: ‘The nine most terrifying words in the English language are “I’m from the government and I’m here to help” ” $4^{41}$

Marginalizing economic inequality For much of the $20^{\text {th }}$ century, the subject of income inequality was marginalized and ignored, according to the English economist Anthony Atkinson who spent much of his professional life studying the subject. Not surprisingly, he ‘believed that it should be central to the study of economics’, yet (as he wrote) ‘a glance at today’s bestselling textbooks shows that the structure has remained much the same as in the past, with discussion of inequality kept separate from the central chapters’.42 (It’s in the same relative location as we have placed this chapter given that this book parallels the structure of the typical text.) We suspect that many economics courses never quite manage to get to the topic.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|The pervasive costs of inequality

We’ve seen earlier, particularly in Chapter 4, evidence of the importance of relative position for individuals’ feelings of well-being. But the focus of textbook economics is on the individual removed from social context. As a result, it largely ignores the question of individuals’ relative position in society except for admitting its existence briefly if it defines poverty in relative terms. Yet a fundamental feature of human (and many other primate) societies is their social hierarchy and the awareness everyone has of their place in it.
The socialgradient of health Within even wealthy countries, life expectancies differ systematically and significantly between different groups of people. People’s income, their occupation and the social status attached to it, the degree of economic security and control over work and home life, and their social connectedness (all of which are interrelated) are all important determinants of individual health. Lower levels of these result in increased chances of poor mental and physical health and premature death. This is called the social gradient of health: average health and life expectancy

decline systematically the lower people are in the social hierarchy, often falling more rapidly at the lowest socioeconomic levels.

The English epidemiologist Michael Marmot, one of the foremost researchers in this area, explains that ‘these social inequalities in health … are not a footnote to the “real” causes of ill-health in countries that are no longer poor; they are the heart of the matter’. ${ }^{{ }^{\prime}}$ The idea of socio-economic inequality as a primary determinant of ill-health may seem surprising. Most public discussion of health policy centres on how well the healthcare system works, and issues of public health regulations (e.g. food and water quality) and individual behaviour, such as smoking, alcohol consumption or exercise. Yet there is ample evidence showing that the effects of socioeconomic inequality are deadly.

For example, the gap in life expectancy between those at the top and those at the bottom in affluent countries can be very large, even though it is largely preventable. There are zo year differences in life expectancy between people at the top and people at the bottom of the income distribution in cities like Glasgow, London, Baltimore, and Washington DC. ${ }^{81}$ The health of everyone in between is also affected by their socio-economic position.
Figure $9.5$ gives one example, showing life expectancy for men in England according to the characteristics of the neighbourhoods in which they live. An index of multiple deprivation was calculated for each of almost 33,000 neighbourhoods. It combines measures of low income, lack of access to

employment, education and skill levels, and crime rates, among other things. ${ }^{82}$ The gap in life expectancy between men in the most deprived areas and those in the least deprived is $9.4$ years. The key point of the social gradient is that everyone is affected, not just those at the very bottom and at the very top. For women, the story is the same although the gap $-7.4$ years – is somewhat smaller.

Figure $9.5$ also shows estimates of ‘disability-free life expectancy’ – the amount of time people can expect to remain free of conditions that would restrict their day-to-day activities. For both men and women, the social gradient here is even steeper than that for life expectancy.

In their book for the World Health Organization, The Social Determinants of Health: The solid facts, Richard Wilkinson and Michael Marmot explain the psychosocial factors affecting physical health.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|The Microeconomics Anti-Textbook

微观经济学代考

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Public Choice and the unsubtle bias against taxation, government spending and income redistribution

与标准文本开头对政府角色的基本描述不同,对公共选择的处理因文本而异。在我们的样本中,有几个几乎没有提到它,而大多数都以不同的细节列出了它的一些核心概念。我们的标准文本收集这些以提供完整的草图。15

作为意识形态项目的公共选择 从公共选择理论中得出的令人不快的公共部门图景并非偶然。英国经济学家查尔斯·罗利(Charles Rowley)是该方法的主要支持者,他描述了由詹姆斯·布坎南(James Buchanan)合着的第一本关于该主题的书籍的结果:支持宪法改革的道德哲学计划,旨在限制政府,甚至限制在守夜人国家的作用”(我们的重点)。16守夜人国家是自由主义资本主义的理想:一个最低限度的国家,无非就是运营军队进行防御,警察处理盗窃和暴力,司法系统执行合同和防止欺诈。17罗利所指的“宪法改革”将剥夺政府提供社会保险(医疗保健、公共教育、失业保险、养老金、儿童保育、扶贫济困等)、以其他方式重新分配收入、规范企业的能力并解决市场失灵问题。结果将是“枷锁中的民主”——美国历史学家南希·麦克林关于詹姆斯·布坎南的书的标题,副标题是“激进右翼对美国的秘密计划”。主要由富人拥有或控制的大企业将成为社会的主导力量。

这一极端主义议程拥有强大的狂热追随者,尤其是在右翼亿万富翁、自由主义资本主义“智囊团”和志同道合的学者中,但几乎没有民众支持,因此在推进他们的事业时需要秘密行动。罗利实际上是在说,公共选择理论从一开始就是为了削弱对通过政府采取集体行动的支持。美国经济学家加里·蒙乔维(Gary Mongiovi)在考察布坎南的经济学时得出的结论是,他的著作“是[卡尔]马克思所说的“庸俗经济”的现代表现,即伪装成科学的统治阶级意识形态。18具有讽刺意味的是,布坎南本人并不羞于公开指责其他经济学家是“意识形态利益的拥护者”——在这种情况下,就是大卫卡德和艾伦克鲁格,他们关于最低工资的实证研究结果在他的意识形态中没有立足之地。19

比较具有成本效益的利润最大化公司的教科书图片与成本低效的垄断政府官僚机构的公共选择故事,这些官僚机构由对公共利益不感兴趣的自利政客主持。比较有效市场的故事,其中市场失灵是例外而不是规则,以及不可避免的政府失败的故事,因为政策要么由无知的选民决定,要么由特殊利益集团的权力斗争决定。即使市场结果存在真正的问题,政府的治疗也被描述为比疾病更糟糕。如果一个学生不加批判地接受公共选择理论——并且没有任何详细描述公共选择思想的文本提供任何批评——那么通过削减税收和支出来缩小国家规模,

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|The subtle bias against taxation, government spending and income redistribution

美国经济学家大卫乔治在对教科书修辞的研究中指出,鉴于教科书主题的顺序,政府“往往被视为一个只有在私营部门建立起来之后才出现的实体”。′9然后,政府通过税收和监管“干预”私人物品市场。

对于税收,文本将注意力集中在“负担”将如何分担以及税收效率成本的技术解释上。(具有讽刺意味的是,通常选择用来说明消费税“效率损失”的商品是具有负外部性的商品,例如燃料、香烟和酒精。因此,正如第 7 章所讨论的,可能有效率收益,而不是损失! )4 税收使政府支出增加所带来的好处变得不那么清楚了。在一本已经强调提高稀缺资源使用效率的重要性的书中,当涉及到公平与效率的权衡时,请读者做出什么选择?

对税收无效率的强调强化了供求应用中文本中给出的示例(在第 3 章中进行了回顾)。它们通常是政府似乎把事情搞砸的情况:最低工资会增加失业率,租金控制会导致公寓短缺,补贴会导致效率低下,税收会导致效率损失。关于“政府失败”的警告(特别是在强调公共选择理论的情况下)进一步强化了这一点。这一切可能正是美国前总统罗纳德·里根所说的:“英语中最可怕的九个词是“我来自政府,我是来帮忙的”。441

将经济不平等边缘化20th 根据英国经济学家安东尼·阿特金森(Anthony Atkinson)的说法,收入不平等的主题在本世纪被边缘化和忽视,他的职业生涯大部分时间都在研究这一主题。毫不奇怪,他“相信它应该是经济学研究的核心”,但(正如他所写的)“看一眼当今最畅销的教科书就会发现,其结构与过去大体相同,对不平等的讨论一直保持不变。与中心章节分开。42(鉴于本书与典型文本的结构相似,它与我们放置本章的相对位置相同。)我们怀疑许多经济学课程从未完全触及主题。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|The pervasive costs of inequality

我们在前面已经看到,特别是在第 4 章中,证明了相对位置对个人幸福感的重要性。但教科书经济学的重点是脱离社会背景的个人。因此,它在很大程度上忽略了个人在社会中的相对地位问题,如果它用相对的术语来定义贫困,只是简单地承认了它的存在。然而,人类(以及许多其他灵长类动物)社会的一个基本特征是他们的社会等级以及每个人都知道自己在其中的位置。
健康的社会梯度即使在富裕国家,不同人群的预期寿命也存在系统性和显着差异。人们的收入、他们的职业和与之相关的社会地位、经济保障程度以及对工作和家庭生活的控制程度以及他们的社会联系(所有这些都是相互关联的)都是个人健康的重要决定因素。较低水平的这些导致精神和身体健康状况不佳和过早死亡的机会增加。这被称为健康的社会梯度:平均健康和预期寿命

系统性地下降,社会等级中较低的人,往往在最低的社会经济水平下降得更快。

英国流行病学家迈克尔·马莫特(Michael Marmot)是该领域最重要的研究人员之一,他解释说,“这些健康方面的社会不平等……并不是对不再贫穷的国家健康不良的“真正”原因的注脚;他们是问题的核心”。′将社会经济不平等作为健康不良的主要决定因素的想法似乎令人惊讶。大多数关于卫生政策的公开讨论都集中在医疗保健系统的运作情况以及公共卫生法规(例如食品和水质)和个人行为(例如吸烟、饮酒或锻炼)问题上。然而,有充分的证据表明,社会经济不平等的影响是致命的。

例如,富裕国家的顶层和底层人口之间的预期寿命差距可能非常大,尽管它在很大程度上是可以预防的。在格拉斯哥、伦敦、巴尔的摩和华盛顿特区等城市,收入分配最高层和底层人群的预期寿命存在 0 年差异。81介于两者之间的每个人的健康也受到其社会经济地位的影响。
数字9.5举了一个例子,根据他们居住的社区的特征显示英格兰男性的预期寿命。为近 33,000 个社区中的每一个计算了多重剥夺指数。它结合了低收入、缺乏获得

就业、教育和技能水平以及犯罪率等等。82最贫困地区与最贫困地区男性的预期寿命差距为9.4年。社会梯度的关键是每个人都会受到影响,而不仅仅是最底层和最顶层的人。对于女性来说,故事是一样的,尽管差距−7.4年 – 有点小。

数字9.5还显示了“无残疾预期寿命”的估计值——人们可以期望保持不受限制其日常活动的条件的时间。对于男性和女性来说,这里的社会梯度甚至比预期寿命还要陡峭。

Richard Wilkinson 和 Michael Marmot 在他们为世界卫生组织撰写的著作《健康的社会决定因素:确凿的事实》中解释了影响身体健康的社会心理因素。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考 请认准statistics-lab™

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金融工程代写

金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题,以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。

非参数统计代写

非参数统计指的是一种统计方法,其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型;这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。

广义线性模型代考

广义线性模型(GLM)归属统计学领域,是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。

术语 广义线性模型(GLM)通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归,以及方差分析和方差分析(仅含固定效应)。

有限元方法代写

有限元方法(FEM)是一种流行的方法,用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。

有限元是一种通用的数值方法,用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程(即一些边界值问题)。为了解决一个问题,有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分,称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的,它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的:用于求解的数值域,它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统,以模拟整个问题。然后,有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构,多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务,包括但不限于Essay代写,Assignment代写,Dissertation代写,Report代写,小组作业代写,Proposal代写,Paper代写,Presentation代写,计算机作业代写,论文修改和润色,网课代做,exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中,本科,研究生等海外留学全阶段,辐射金融,经济学,会计学,审计学,管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者,也有海外名校硕博留学生,每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力,专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创,100%专业,100%准时,100%满意。

随机分析代写


随机微积分是数学的一个分支,对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。

时间序列分析代写

随机过程,是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体,参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现,其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值(如1秒,5分钟,12小时,7天,1年),因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中,往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录,以得到其自身发展的规律。

回归分析代写

多元回归分析渐进(Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics)属于计量经济学领域,主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法,可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系,在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中,其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括:数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发,包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统,其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题,尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题,而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问,这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展,得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中,它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域,MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要,工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数(M 文件)的综合集合,可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

R语言代写问卷设计与分析代写
PYTHON代写回归分析与线性模型代写
MATLAB代写方差分析与试验设计代写
STATA代写机器学习/统计学习代写
SPSS代写计量经济学代写
EVIEWS代写时间序列分析代写
EXCEL代写深度学习代写
SQL代写各种数据建模与可视化代写

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|THE STANDARD TEXT

如果你也在 怎样代写微观经济学Microeconomics这个学科遇到相关的难题,请随时右上角联系我们的24/7代写客服。

微观经济学是主流经济学的一个分支,研究个人和企业在做出有关稀缺资源分配的决策时的行为以及这些个人和企业之间的相互作用。

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写微观经济学Microeconomics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写微观经济学Microeconomics代写方面经验极为丰富,各种代写微观经济学Microeconomics相关的作业也就用不着说。

我们提供的微观经济学Microeconomics及其相关学科的代写,服务范围广, 其中包括但不限于:

  • Statistical Inference 统计推断
  • Statistical Computing 统计计算
  • Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
  • Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
  • (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
  • Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
  • Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
  • Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|THE STANDARD TEXT

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Public choice and government failure

If markets fail to allocate resources efficiently, government policy could potentially correct it. Our major examples were (i) a Pigouvian tax (or subsidy) to offset an external cost (or benefit); (ii) competition policy, regulation or public ownership to deal with monopoly power; and (iii) providing public goods if the private sector failed to do so adequately. Because the social costs of some market failures are smaller than the costs of government action, sometimes it’s better for government to do nothing.

Up to this point, we have implicitly assumed that governments will appropriately address such economic inefficiencies. But why couldn’t we also have government failures as well as market failures? These could occur if government policymakers fail to recognize the problem, if they don’t have the information to address it adequately, or if they choose inappropriate policies, perhaps creating greater inefficiencies. We need theories of the political marketplace, where policies are determined, to assess the likelihood of government success or failure.

In the same way that we assume that self-interested consumers maximize utility and firms maximize profits, we could assume that actors in the political marketplace also act in their own self-interest. Public choice theory uses this approach. It originated in the United States in the late 1950 and the 1960 with the work of economists including James Buchanan, winner of the 1986 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics.

In this view, politicians, motivated by the desire for money, prestige and power, seek to gain and to keep public office by attracting the votes that are needed to do that. Bureaucrats are assumed to want to maximize the size of their bureaus and budgets, as this provides them with greater pay and status. People, in their role as voters, support those policies which most closely conform to their own economic interests. They can also further those interests by lobbying politicians, donating to political parties and so on.

What determines which policies will be chosen? Among other things, that depends on the nature of the political institutions and the way that people can express their preferences about policy choices.

The median voter model Let’s consider a simple example of this influential model that’s relevant to the subject of this chapter.

The policy in question is how much income to redistribute to reduce income inequality. This could involve setting income tax rates and providing certain cash transfers to households. Different people will have different preferences, depending upon their interests. Those with low incomes would prefer a significant reduction in income inequality (e.g. through progressive taxes and cash transfers of income to themselves), while at the other extreme those with high incomes would prefer that no inequality-reducing redistribution take place. Imagine voters lined up from left to right, those on the left preferring the largest reduction in inequality, those on the right preferring the least reduction.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|The costs of taxation

Taxation is costly not only because it is costly for government to collect the revenues and for individuals and business to comply with the tax law, but because it influences economic decisions. These include decisions by households about what and how much to buy and how much to save, and decisions by firms about what to produce and how and where to produce those things.

If the decisions of consumers and firms in the absence of taxes would lead to an efficient allocation of resources, then taxes must cause inefficiency if they change those decisions. We saw this in the analysis of an excise tax using the supply and demand framework in Chapter 3 . In that case, the result was a loss to society of producing less of the taxed good. This loss occurs because some mutually beneficial exchanges no longer take place. A similar analysis can be done for any kind of tax. As long as taxes influence choices that would otherwise be optimal, they create ‘efficiency losses’.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|The distribution of income and wealth

Countries are usually compared using per-person average income. Because of inequality, however, we need to know about the distribution of income and of wealth to judge how a society is doing in terms of equity. Inequality has been increasing in many countries in recent decades, leading to debate about why this has happened. It has also led to questions about what, if anything, to do about it.

The distribution of income The distribution of income can be measured in two ways. One is the functional distribution of income, breaking income down into its sources like wages and salaries, rent, and profits as we did in Chapter $8 .$ The Classical economists from Adam Smith to Karl Marx used this approach to think about the incomes of workers, landowners and capitalists. This distinction is now no longer as relevant, so economists now focus on the distribution of household incomes.

Incomes can be measured in different ways. ‘Market income’ includes wages and salaries and income from savings (dividends, interest, capital gains). Alternatively, ‘disposable income’ is market income plus cash transfers from government minus income taxes and other direct taxes on wages and salaries (e.g. premiums to national pension plans or for unemployment insurance). Comparing the two allows us to see some of the effects of government on the distribution of income.

Suppose, as in Figure 9.1, households are lined up on the horizontal axis from the lowest income on the left to the highest income on the right. The vertical axis shows the percentage shares of total household income that various groupings of households have. In this example, the poorest 50 per cent of households have 20 per cent of total market income. If household incomes were equally distributed, those households would have 50 per cent of total

income, the amount shown on the 45 -degree line. The gap between the points showing actual household incomes (called the Lorenz curve) and this reference line indicates the nature and extent of market income inequality.

Income inequality can be summarized in a single number to aid in comparing inequality over time and across countries. The most widely used measure that summarizes the entire income distribution is the Gini coefficient. This is the ratio of the area between the Lorenz curve and the 45 -degree line and the entire area under the 45 -degree line. In Figure $9.1$, the Gini coefficient for market incomes is $(A+B) /(A+B+C)$. Its value ranges between zero and one. It’s zero if income is equally distributed; it’s 1 if one household has everything. This method is commonly used to measure both inequality in a country over time and to compare inequality in different countries.

The Gini coefficient can also show how taxation and government transfers of money to households change the distribution of income among households. If governments act to reduce inequality, the Lorenz curve shifts as shown in Figure 9.1. In the example, the half of households with the lowest incomes now have 35 percent of total disposable income compared with 20 percent before taxes and transfers. The Gini coefficient now falls to $A /(A+B+C)$. The extent of redistribution can be measured by the difference in the two Gini coefficients.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|THE STANDARD TEXT

微观经济学代考

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Public choice and government failure

如果市场不能有效地分配资源,政府政策可能会纠正它。我们的主要例子是(i)庇古税(或补贴)以抵消外部成本(或收益);(ii) 处理垄断权力的竞争政策、法规或公有制;(iii) 如果私营部门未能充分提供公共产品。因为一些市场失灵的社会成本小于政府行动的成本,有时政府不采取行动会更好。

到目前为止,我们已经隐含地假设政府会适当地解决这种经济效率低下的问题。但是为什么我们不能同时有政府失灵和市场失灵呢?如果政府决策者未能认识到问题,如果他们没有充分解决问题的信息,或者如果他们选择不适当的政策,可能会造成更大的效率低下,就会发生这种情况。我们需要确定政策的政治市场理论来评估政府成功或失败的可能性。

就像我们假设自利的消费者最大化效用和企业最大化利润一样,我们可以假设政治市场中的参与者也为自己的利益行事。公共选择理论使用这种方法。它起源于 1950 年末和 1960 年的美国,由包括 1986 年诺贝尔经济学奖获得者詹姆斯·布坎南在内的经济学家所著。

在这种观点下,政治家出于对金钱、声望和权力的渴望,通过吸引所需的选票来谋求获得和保住公职。假定官僚希望最大化他们的局和预算的规模,因为这为他们提供了更高的薪水和地位。人们作为选民,支持那些最符合他们自身经济利益的政策。他们还可以通过游说政客、向政党捐款等方式促进这些利益。

什么决定了选择哪些政策?除其他外,这取决于政治机构的性质以及人们表达他们对政策选择的偏好的方式。

中值选民模型 让我们考虑一个与本章主题相关的有影响力模型的简单示例。

有问题的政策是重新分配多少收入以减少收入不平等。这可能涉及设定所得税税率并向家庭提供某些现金转移。不同的人会有不同的偏好,这取决于他们的兴趣。低收入者希望显着减少收入不平等(例如,通过累进税和将收入现金转移给他们自己),而在另一个极端,高收入者希望不进行减少不平等的再分配。想象一下选民从左到右排列,左边的人更喜欢不平等程度的最大减少,右边的人更喜欢减少最少的不平等。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|The costs of taxation

税收成本高昂,不仅因为政府收取税收以及个人和企业遵守税法的成本很高,而且因为它影响经济决策。其中包括家庭关于购买什么、购买多少以及储蓄多少的决定,以及公司关于生产什么以及如何以及在哪里生产这些东西的决定。

如果消费者和企业在没有税收的情况下做出的决定会导致资源的有效配置,那么如果税收改变了这些决定,它们就会导致效率低下。我们在第 3 章使用供需框架分析消费税时看到了这一点。在这种情况下,结果是社会损失了生产更少的应税商品。这种损失的发生是因为一些互利的交换不再发生。可以对任何类型的税收进行类似的分析。只要税收影响本来可能是最优的选择,它们就会造成“效率损失”。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|The distribution of income and wealth

各国通常使用人均收入进行比较。然而,由于不平等,我们需要了解收入和财富的分配,以判断一个社会在公平方面的表现。近几十年来,许多国家的不平等现象不断加剧,引发了关于为什么会发生这种情况的争论。它还引发了关于如何处理的问题,如果有的话。

收入分配 收入分配可以用两种方式来衡量。一是收入的功能分配,将收入分解为工资和薪水、租金和利润等来源,就像我们在本章中所做的那样8.从亚当·斯密到卡尔·马克思的古典经济学家使用这种方法来思考工人、地主和资本家的收入。这种区别现在不再那么重要,因此经济学家现在关注家庭收入的分配。

收入可以用不同的方式来衡量。“市场收入”包括工资和薪水以及储蓄收入(股息、利息、资本收益)。或者,“可支配收入”是市场收入加上来自政府的现金转移减去所得税和其他对工资和薪金的直接税(例如国家养老金计划或失业保险的保费)。比较两者可以让我们看到政府对收入分配的一些影响。

假设,如图 9.1 所示,家庭在水平轴上从左侧的最低收入到右侧的最高收入排列。纵轴显示不同家庭组别占家庭总收入的百分比。在这个例子中,最贫困的 50% 家庭拥有市场总收入的 20%。如果家庭收入平均分配,这些家庭将拥有总收入的 50%

收入,显示在 45 度线上的金额。显示实际家庭收入的点(称为洛伦兹曲线)与这条参考线之间的差距表明了市场收入不平等的性质和程度。

收入不平等可以用一个数字来概括,以帮助比较不同时间和不同国家之间的不平等。总结整个收入分配的最广泛使用的衡量标准是基尼系数。这是洛伦兹曲线和 45 度线之间的面积与 45 度线下的整个面积之比。如图9.1,市场收入的基尼系数为(一个+乙)/(一个+乙+C). 它的值介于零和一之间。如果收入平均分配,则为零;如果一个家庭拥有一切,则为 1。这种方法通常用于衡量一个国家在一段时间内的不平等,并比较不同国家的不平等。

基尼系数还可以显示税收和政府对家庭的货币转移如何改变家庭之间的收入分配。如果政府采取行动减少不平等,洛伦兹曲线就会移动,如图 9.1 所示。在这个例子中,收入最低的一半家庭现在拥有总可支配收入的 35%,而税前和转移支付前这一比例为 20%。基尼系数现在下降到一个/(一个+乙+C). 再分配的程度可以通过两个基尼系数的差异来衡量。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考 请认准statistics-lab™

统计代写请认准statistics-lab™. statistics-lab™为您的留学生涯保驾护航。

金融工程代写

金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题,以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。

非参数统计代写

非参数统计指的是一种统计方法,其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型;这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。

广义线性模型代考

广义线性模型(GLM)归属统计学领域,是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。

术语 广义线性模型(GLM)通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归,以及方差分析和方差分析(仅含固定效应)。

有限元方法代写

有限元方法(FEM)是一种流行的方法,用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。

有限元是一种通用的数值方法,用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程(即一些边界值问题)。为了解决一个问题,有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分,称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的,它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的:用于求解的数值域,它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统,以模拟整个问题。然后,有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构,多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务,包括但不限于Essay代写,Assignment代写,Dissertation代写,Report代写,小组作业代写,Proposal代写,Paper代写,Presentation代写,计算机作业代写,论文修改和润色,网课代做,exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中,本科,研究生等海外留学全阶段,辐射金融,经济学,会计学,审计学,管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者,也有海外名校硕博留学生,每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力,专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创,100%专业,100%准时,100%满意。

随机分析代写


随机微积分是数学的一个分支,对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。

时间序列分析代写

随机过程,是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体,参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现,其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值(如1秒,5分钟,12小时,7天,1年),因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中,往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录,以得到其自身发展的规律。

回归分析代写

多元回归分析渐进(Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics)属于计量经济学领域,主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法,可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系,在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中,其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括:数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发,包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统,其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题,尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题,而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问,这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展,得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中,它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域,MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要,工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数(M 文件)的综合集合,可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

R语言代写问卷设计与分析代写
PYTHON代写回归分析与线性模型代写
MATLAB代写方差分析与试验设计代写
STATA代写机器学习/统计学习代写
SPSS代写计量经济学代写
EVIEWS代写时间序列分析代写
EXCEL代写深度学习代写
SQL代写各种数据建模与可视化代写

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|How about dynamic monopsony

如果你也在 怎样代写微观经济学Microeconomics这个学科遇到相关的难题,请随时右上角联系我们的24/7代写客服。

微观经济学是主流经济学的一个分支,研究个人和企业在做出有关稀缺资源分配的决策时的行为以及这些个人和企业之间的相互作用。

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写微观经济学Microeconomics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写微观经济学Microeconomics代写方面经验极为丰富,各种代写微观经济学Microeconomics相关的作业也就用不着说。

我们提供的微观经济学Microeconomics及其相关学科的代写,服务范围广, 其中包括但不限于:

  • Statistical Inference 统计推断
  • Statistical Computing 统计计算
  • Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
  • Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
  • (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
  • Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
  • Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
  • Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|How about dynamic monopsony

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|How about dynamic monopsony?

Many economists now believe that the competitive labour market model is not an appropriate default model. Like Alan Manning of the London School of Economics, they think that a version of the monopsony model should be central to the study of labour markets, even where there are many small firms. ${ }^{38}$

A central problem with the textbook competitive model is that it omits critical features of the labour market, including employers’ market power. Did you notice in Figure $8.1$ that if a competitive firm reduces its wages by one cent below the equilibrium wage, its entire workforce would quit and instantly get a job somewhere else at the equilibrium wage? From the firm’s point of view, if workers leave (to take care of children, to retire, etc.), the firm can instantly and costlessly replace them. The employer-employee relationship is symmetric, with neither being more powerful than the other. Each has the equivalent power to terminate the relationship and instantly find another job or another worker. Such a depiction is completely implausible as a description of the actual labour market.

In general, if a firm reduced its wages, it would not immediately lose all its workers. As Manning says, a firm ‘may find that workers quit at a faster rate than before or that recruitment is more difficult, but the extreme predictions of the competitive model do not hold’.39 Why don’t all the workers quit immediately? It’s because of what are called ‘frictions’ in the market. For example, when information is not free it takes time and resources to find a new job and taking such a job might entail moving home or increased costs of commuting. Other frictions include personal preferences (such as strongly preferring a certain type of work or attachment to one’s coworkers), and the firm-specific training and skills that a worker may have. As Manning explains: ‘The existence of frictions gives employers potential market power over their workers. The assumption that firms set wages means that they actually exercise this power. ${ }^{9} 40$

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Does the marginal productivity theory help to legitimize actual factor prices?

Many critics of neoclassical economics accuse the marginal productivity theory of doing precisely that: legitimizing existing payments to the owners of factors of production. 57 If these factor payments can somehow be rationalized as legitimate or fair, it would be an important step towards justifying the fairness of the distribution of households’ market incomes.
A theory might legitimize an outcome, like a market price, in three ways. It might make the outcome seem: (1) fair; (2) unavoidable; or (3) socially beneficial, or some combination of the three.

The modern marginal productivity theory originated in the late nineteenth century in the work of the American economist John Bates Clark. Clark explicitly argued that having rewards determined by marginal contribution to output was fair because ‘what a social class gets is, under natural law, what it contributes to the general output of industry’. ${ }^{B}$ It was unavoidable because competition ensures that if an employer tried to pay a worker less than her marginal product, other employers would offer more, bidding her wages up. It also seems (at least at first glance) to be socially beneficial. Given the assumption of competitive markets and no

market failures, it allocates society’s scarce resources in the most efficient way. Competition also ensures that no market power is exerted by either party in the transaction. Clark’s claim came at a politically convenient time because socialists, inspired by the writings of Karl Marx and other critics of capitalism, were arguing that workers were being systematically exploited.
It’s worth noting that Clark’s theory only applies to the long run of perfectly competitive markets with perfect foresight and perfect mobility of factors. So, as factor markets are continually being disturbed by shifts in demand and supply, at best actual prices would be moving towards that equilibrium. Given this, Mark Blaug comments on Clark’s claim, writing: ‘It would be less misleading to say the very opposite: marginal productivity theory shows us that market results are by no means “fair” or “equitable”. “59
In Clark’s theory, reproduced in today’s textbooks, if more labour is employed with a given amount of capital, its marginal productivity is lower because capital per worker is less. Similarly, if there is less labour, its marginal productivity is higher. Blaug remarks that ‘the greater productivity of fewer workers may just as well be attributed to capital…. There is no such thing as a specific marginal product of a factor considered in isolation: the factors of production are essentially complements and the marginal product of one factor is a consequence of the marginal product of the other factors’ (our emphasis). This “destroys the idea that a wage in accordance with the marginal productivity of labour is a “just wage”. $e^{160}$

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|CEO and Management Compensation

In an article for Forbes magazine, Adam Hartung sought to explain why CEOs of large American corporations with publicly traded stock make so much money. He wrote, ‘Honestly, if you could set your own pay what would it be? I reckon most folks would take as much as they could get.” ${ }^{69}$ CEO pay is actually determined in a more subtle way, as Hartung and others explain, but the end result is not that much different than this. We

conclude this Anti-Text part of the chapter by looking at the compensation of senior corporate executives because it acts as a useful case study of the shortcomings of the marginal productivity theory.

Let’s start with a quick look at the facts. Figure $8.6$ shows two different measures of CEO compensation for the largest 350 publicly owned US companies, ranked by the value of their sales. $7^{70}$ These compare annual average payouts to these CEOs with the typical worker’s average earnings in the key industry of the firms in the sample. The measures differ in the way they value stock options.

Stock options give the holder the right to buy company stock in the future, generally at prices prevailing when the options are granted. A “fair value” of the option can be estimated and used to value it at that time. ${ }^{71}$ An alternative valuation records their “realized’ value when the options are exercised and the money received.

The increasing use of stock options arose, in part, from developments in economic theory to address a principal-agent problem (discussed in Chapter 5). In this case, there are two principal-agent relationships: (i) between stockholders as principals and their agents, the Board of Directors, who are to act in stockholders’ interests and (ii) between the Board of Directors (now the principals) and their agents, the senior executives of the corporation. In both cases asymmetric information makes it difficult for the principals to monitor their agents.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|How about dynamic monopsony

微观经济学代考

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|How about dynamic monopsony?

许多经济学家现在认为,竞争性劳动力市场模型不是一个合适的默认模型。与伦敦经济学院的艾伦·曼宁一样,他们认为垄断模式的一个版本应该是劳动力市场研究的核心,即使在有许多小公司的地方也是如此。38

教科书竞争模型的一个核心问题是它忽略了劳动力市场的关键特征,包括雇主的市场力量。有没有注意到图中8.1如果一家有竞争力的公司将其工资降低到比均衡工资低 1 美分,它的全部劳动力就会辞职并立即以均衡工资在其他地方找到工作?从公司的角度来看,如果工人离开(照顾孩子、退休等),公司可以立即且无成本地更换他们。雇主与雇员的关系是对称的,没有一方比另一方更强大。每个人都有同等的权力终止关系并立即找到另一份工作或另一名工人。这样的描述作为对实际劳动力市场的描述是完全不可信的。

一般来说,如果一家公司降低工资,它不会立即失去所有工人。正如曼宁所说,一家公司“可能会发现员工离职的速度比以前更快,或者招聘更加困难,但竞争模型的极端预测并不成立”。39 为什么不是所有员工都立即离职?这是因为市场上所谓的“摩擦”。例如,当信息不免费时,寻找新工作需要时间和资源,而接受这样的工作可能需要搬家或增加通勤成本。其他摩擦包括个人偏好(例如强烈喜欢某种类型的工作或对同事的依恋),以及员工可能拥有的公司特定培训和技能。正如曼宁解释的那样:“摩擦的存在使雇主对他们的工人具有潜在的市场力量。940

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Does the marginal productivity theory help to legitimize actual factor prices?

许多新古典经济学的批评者指责边际生产力理论正是这样做的:使现有支付给生产要素所有者的款项合法化。57 如果这些要素支付能够以某种方式被合理化为合法或公平,这将是朝着证明家庭市场收入分配公平合理性迈出的重要一步。
一个理论可以通过三种方式使结果合法化,比如市场价格。这可能会使结果看起来:(1)公平;(二)不可避免的;或 (3) 对社会有益,或三者的某种组合。

现代边际生产力理论起源于 19 世纪后期美国经济学家约翰·贝茨·克拉克的著作。克拉克明确指出,由对产出的边际贡献决定的回报是公平的,因为“根据自然法,一个社会阶层得到的是它对工业一般产出的贡献”。乙这是不可避免的,因为竞争确保如果雇主试图支付工人的工资低于她的边际产品,其他雇主会提供更多,从而抬高她的工资。它也似乎(至少乍一看)对社会有益。给定竞争市场的假设并且没有

市场失灵,它以最有效的方式配置社会稀缺资源。竞争还确保任何一方在交易中都不会发挥市场力量。克拉克的主张是在政治上方便的时候提出的,因为社会主义者受到卡尔·马克思和其他资本主义批评者的著作的启发,认为工人正在被系统地剥削。
值得注意的是,克拉克的理论只适用于具有完美预见性和完美要素流动性的完全竞争市场的长期。因此,随着要素市场不断受到供需变化的干扰,实际价格充其量只会朝着这种均衡发展。鉴于此,马克·布劳格评论克拉克的主张,写道:“如果说相反的话,误导性会更小:边际生产率理论告诉我们,市场结果绝不是“公平的”或“公平的”。“59
在今天的教科书中重现的克拉克理论中,如果在一定数量的资本下使用更多的劳动力,其边际生产率会更低,因为每个工人的资本更少。同样,如果劳动力少,它的边际生产率就高。Blaug 评论说,“更少工人的更高生产力也可以归因于资本…… 不存在孤立考虑的要素的特定边际产量:生产要素本质上是互补的,一个要素的边际产量是其他要素边际产量的结果(我们的重点)。这“破坏了按照劳动边际生产力的工资是“公正工资”的观念。和160

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|CEO and Management Compensation

在福布斯杂志的一篇文章中,Adam Hartung 试图解释为什么拥有公开交易股票的美国大公司的 CEO 能赚这么多钱。他写道,“老实说,如果你可以设定自己的工资,那会是什么?我认为大多数人会尽可能多地拿走。”69正如 Hartung 和其他人所解释的那样,CEO 的薪酬实际上是以一种更微妙的方式确定的,但最终结果与此并无太大区别。我们

通过研究高级公司高管的薪酬来结束本章的反文本部分,因为它是边际生产力理论缺陷的有用案例研究。

让我们先快速浏览一下事实。数字8.6显示了美国最大的 350 家上市公司的 CEO 薪酬的两种不同衡量标准,按销售额排名。770这些将这些 CEO 的年平均支出与样本中公司关键行业的典型工人平均收入进行了比较。这些措施在评估股票期权的方式上有所不同。

股票期权赋予持有人在未来购买公司股票的权利,通常以授予期权时的现行价格购买。可以估计期权的“公允价值”并在当时对其进行估值。71当期权被行使和收到的钱时,另一种估值记录它们的“已实现”价值。

越来越多地使用股票期权,部分原因是经济理论的发展,以解决委托代理问题(在第 5 章中讨论)。在这种情况下,存在两种委托代理关系:(i)作为委托人的股东及其代理人,董事会之间,董事会将按照股东的利益行事;(ii)董事会(现为委托人)之间及其代理人,公司的高级管理人员。在这两种情况下,信息不对称使得委托人难以监控他们的代理人。

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统计代写请认准statistics-lab™. statistics-lab™为您的留学生涯保驾护航。

金融工程代写

金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题,以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。

非参数统计代写

非参数统计指的是一种统计方法,其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型;这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。

广义线性模型代考

广义线性模型(GLM)归属统计学领域,是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。

术语 广义线性模型(GLM)通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归,以及方差分析和方差分析(仅含固定效应)。

有限元方法代写

有限元方法(FEM)是一种流行的方法,用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。

有限元是一种通用的数值方法,用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程(即一些边界值问题)。为了解决一个问题,有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分,称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的,它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的:用于求解的数值域,它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统,以模拟整个问题。然后,有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构,多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务,包括但不限于Essay代写,Assignment代写,Dissertation代写,Report代写,小组作业代写,Proposal代写,Paper代写,Presentation代写,计算机作业代写,论文修改和润色,网课代做,exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中,本科,研究生等海外留学全阶段,辐射金融,经济学,会计学,审计学,管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者,也有海外名校硕博留学生,每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力,专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创,100%专业,100%准时,100%满意。

随机分析代写


随机微积分是数学的一个分支,对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。

时间序列分析代写

随机过程,是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体,参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现,其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值(如1秒,5分钟,12小时,7天,1年),因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中,往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录,以得到其自身发展的规律。

回归分析代写

多元回归分析渐进(Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics)属于计量经济学领域,主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法,可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系,在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中,其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括:数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发,包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统,其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题,尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题,而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问,这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展,得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中,它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域,MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要,工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数(M 文件)的综合集合,可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

R语言代写问卷设计与分析代写
PYTHON代写回归分析与线性模型代写
MATLAB代写方差分析与试验设计代写
STATA代写机器学习/统计学习代写
SPSS代写计量经济学代写
EVIEWS代写时间序列分析代写
EXCEL代写深度学习代写
SQL代写各种数据建模与可视化代写

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|THE ANTI-TEXT

如果你也在 怎样代写微观经济学Microeconomics这个学科遇到相关的难题,请随时右上角联系我们的24/7代写客服。

微观经济学是主流经济学的一个分支,研究个人和企业在做出有关稀缺资源分配的决策时的行为以及这些个人和企业之间的相互作用。

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写微观经济学Microeconomics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写微观经济学Microeconomics代写方面经验极为丰富,各种代写微观经济学Microeconomics相关的作业也就用不着说。

我们提供的微观经济学Microeconomics及其相关学科的代写,服务范围广, 其中包括但不限于:

  • Statistical Inference 统计推断
  • Statistical Computing 统计计算
  • Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
  • Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
  • (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
  • Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
  • Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
  • Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|THE ANTI-TEXT

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Textbooks ignore their own methodology

Textbooks emphasize that models cannot be judged by the realism of their assumptions, but only by the accuracy of their predictions. Yet in this chapter of the typical mainstream textbook several models are presented and their predictions are not tested against the facts. Instead, predictions about the benefits of specialization and trade (for example) are stated as if they have been demonstrated by the model. This lack of testing can perhaps be forgiven in such an early chapter of a textbook. But this same omission continues throughout subsequent chapters. Rarely is any evidence presented to back up a model’s predictions, let alone a systematic consideration of evidence.

Further, the textbooks often fail to clarify the comparative nature of model testing. The real issue is always how well a model performs relative to an alternative model; how well one set of assumptions performs relative to an alternative set of assumptions. In practice, a poorly performing model will not be abandoned unless we have an alternative that can do better. Textbooks don’t mention difficulties associated with model selection.

Why don’t the textbooks consistently apply the test of predictive power to the models they present? One possible answer is that predictive power isn’t all it’s claimed to be. Predictive power may be fine in the natural sciences, such as physics or chemistry, but in a social science like economics, where there are so many variables that are impossible to control, it simply doesn’t give us conclusive answers. Consequently, if we restrict ourselves to talking about things that have been conclusively settled by empirical evidence, then we’d have little to say. Let’s consider this problem in more detail.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Testing economic theories in practice

If the official methodology of positive economics worked reliably, there should be widespread consensus among economists about positive questions. Indeed, many texts claim that is the case. For example, Gregory Mankiw claims that 79 percent of economists agree that ‘minimum wage increases unemployment among young and unskilled workers’. Clearly, the figure comes from a 1990 survey cited in Table 2 .3. Let’s consider this purported consensus. There have been four surveys published, the results of which are shown in Table $2.3$.

From Table $2.3$ we see that to get 79 per cent agreeing with the minimum wage proposition on the 1990 survey, one must add the ‘generally agree’ category to the ‘agree with provisos’ category. This is taking a bit of a liberty, isn’t it? What if the proviso is related to the size of the minimum wage increase? For example, suppose a doubling of the minimum wage would increase youth unemployment, but a 20 per cent increase would not. If that were the proviso then the economists who ‘agreed with provisos’ would hold ‘heretical’ beliefs. As we will see in the next chapter, the textbook prediction is that any increase in minimum wages would increase unemployment. Since we really don’t know what the provisos are, we simply shouldn’t group the two categories.

Comparing the results of the four surveys, we see a clear trend: a decline in the percentage of those who generally agreed and a rise in the percentage of those who disagreed. If these surveys show anything at all, they show the gradual breakdown of consensus with regard to the minimum wage proposition.

This breakdown of consensus almost certainly reflects the work of David Card, Lawrence Katz, Allan Krueger and others, much of it published in the early 1990 s, which concluded that minimum wage increases often have a zero or even a positive impact on employment. These results were the subject of a lively debate, discussed in Card and Krueger’s 1995 book Myth and Measurement. ${ }^{6}$

The tone of the debate has often been rather heated. Card and Krueger have been accused of practicing ‘politically correct’ economics and of deliberately using suspect data in one of their studies. 7 For their part, Card and Krueger have presented evidence of ‘publication bias’ that makes results that are contrary to textbook conventional wisdom harder to publish. ${ }^{8}$a

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Labour markets are not like the market for bananas

When Tim Bray resigned as a Vice President of Amazon over the firing of employees who had protested workplace safety during the pandemic, he wrote the following on his blog: ‘At the end of the day, the big problem isn’t the specifics of Covid-19 response. It’s that Amazon treats the humans in the warehouses as fungible units of pick-and-pack potential. Only that’s not just Amazon, that’s how $21^{\text {st }}$-century capitalism is done. ${ }^{29}$

The treatment of workers that Mr. Bray describes is the very same treatment they receive in the standard text’s model of the labour market. It makes a critical assumption that it hides in plain sight: ‘it assumes that labour can be purchased in a manner similar to the way bananas change hands in some fruit market’, as Yanis Varoufakis describes it. ${ }^{3}$ He adds that once it’s assumed that labour can be quantified like this, it is also assumed that these quantities of labour can be combined with other factors of production to produce specific amounts of output. This is the assumption that was made in the Standard Text part of Chapter 5 when we consider the firm’s production and costs.

The ideas that we looked at in the previous section suggest that labour is a special commodity. The workers who are renting out their time care about fair treatment and are sensitive to their social status in the workplace, among other things. People also care about what they do, unlike in the standard model where hours of work are hired by whoever pays the most. ${ }^{31}$
The version of efficiency wages that appears in some texts (and in our Standard Text) acknowledges that the amount of work effort that the employer receives from hiring an hour of work is not constant, but it does not pursue its implications. Workerswill increase theirworkeffort the greater the opportunity cost of losing their jobs as reflected by time spent unemployed. The texts fail to note the link between the general level of unemployment and employers’ power to extract more work effort. If employers could costlessly monitor workers, that link would be even stronger. Technological developments now allow almost costless monitoring for some jobs, such as the pick-and-pack jobs in Amazon warehouses.

Because contracts between employers and workers are necessarily incomplete and can’t specify the level of work effort, employers can try to dictate the pace of work using ‘the threat of dismissal and other psychological methods. It is these important determinants of the profit/ wage link that the textbook theory does not account for’, as Yanis Varoufakis explains. ${ }^{32}$ By portraying labour as just another commodity, it serves to obscure, whether intentionally or not, the incentive and ability of employers to exercise some degree of power over employees, who may resist that in various ways.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|THE ANTI-TEXT

微观经济学代考

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Textbooks ignore their own methodology

教科书强调,模型不能通过其假设的现实性来判断,而只能通过其预测的准确性来判断。然而,在典型的主流教科书的这一章中,提出了几个模型,并且它们的预测没有经过事实检验。相反,关于专业化和贸易(例如)的好处的预测被表述为好像它们已经被模型证明了。在教科书的如此早期的章节中,这种缺乏测试的情况也许可以原谅。但同样的遗漏在随后的章节中继续存在。很少有证据支持模型的预测,更不用说系统地考虑证据了。

此外,教科书往往未能阐明模型测试的比较性质。真正的问题始终是模型相对于替代模型的性能如何。一组假设相对于另一组假设的表现如何。在实践中,除非我们有可以做得更好的替代方案,否则不会放弃性能不佳的模型。教科书没有提到与模型选择相关的困难。

为什么教科书没有一致地将预测能力测试应用于他们提出的模型?一个可能的答案是,预测能力并不是它所声称的那样。预测能力在物理或化学等自然科学中可能很好,但在经济学等社会科学中,有太多无法控制的变量,它根本无法给我们确定的答案。因此,如果我们仅限于谈论已经通过经验证据最终解决的事情,那么我们将无话可说。让我们更详细地考虑这个问题。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Testing economic theories in practice

如果实证经济学的官方方法可靠地工作,经济学家之间应该就实证问题达成广泛共识。确实,许多文本声称情况如此。例如,Gregory Mankiw 声称 79% 的经济学家同意“最低工资会增加年轻和非技术工人的失业率”。显然,该数字来自表 2 .3 中引用的 1990 年调查。让我们考虑一下这个所谓的共识。已发表四次调查,结果见表2.3.

从表2.3我们看到,要在 1990 年的调查中获得 79% 的同意最低工资主张,必须在“同意附带条件”类别中添加“普遍同意”类别。这有点冒昧,不是吗?如果附带条件与最低工资增长幅度有关怎么办?例如,假设最低工资翻一番会增加青年失业率,但增加 20% 不会。如果这是附带条件,那么“同意附带条件”的经济学家将持有“异端”信念。正如我们将在下一章中看到的,教科书的预测是最低工资的任何增加都会增加失业率。由于我们真的不知道附带条件是什么,我们根本不应该将这两个类别归为一类。

比较四次调查的结果,我们看到了一个明显的趋势:普遍同意的比例下降,不同意的比例上升。如果这些调查显示了任何东西,它们表明关于最低工资提议的共识正在逐渐瓦解。

这种共识的崩溃几乎肯定反映了 David Card、Lawrence Katz、Allan Krueger 和其他人的工作,其中大部分发表于 1990 年代初期,其结论是最低工资增长通常对就业产生零甚至积极的影响。这些结果是激烈辩论的主题,在 Card 和 Krueger 1995 年的著作 Myth and Measurement 中进行了讨论。6

辩论的基调往往相当激烈。Card 和 Krueger 被指控在他们的一项研究中实践“政治正确”经济学并故意使用可疑数据。7 对于他们来说,Card 和 Krueger 提出了“发表偏见”的证据,这使得与教科书传统智慧相悖的结果更难发表。8一个

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Labour markets are not like the market for bananas

当蒂姆·布雷(Tim Bray)因解雇在大流行期间抗议工作场所安全的员工而辞去亚马逊副总裁职务时,他在博客上写道:“归根结底,最大的问题不是新冠病毒的具体情况-19 响应。亚马逊将仓库中的人员视为具有拣选和打包潜力的可替代单位。只是这不仅仅是亚马逊,就是这样21英石 -世纪资本主义已经完成。29

布雷先生描述的工人待遇与标准文本的劳动力市场模型中的待遇完全相同。它提出了一个隐藏在视线范围内的关键假设:“它假设劳动力可以以类似于香蕉在某些水果市场易手的方式购买”,正如 Yanis Varoufakis 所描述的那样。3他补充说,一旦假设劳动力可以像这样量化,那么也假设这些劳动力数量可以与其他生产要素相结合以产生特定数量的产出。这是我们在考虑公司的生产和成本时在第 5 章的标准文本部分做出的假设。

我们在上一节中看到的想法表明,劳动力是一种特殊的商品。出租时间的工人关心公平待遇,并对他们在工作场所的社会地位等敏感。人们也关心他们所做的事情,这与标准模式不同,标准模式中,工作时间由支付最多的人雇佣。31
某些文本(以及我们的标准文本)中出现的效率工资版本承认,雇主从雇用一小时工作中获得的工作量不是恒定的,但它并没有追究其含义。失业的机会成本越大,工人的工作量就会越大,这反映在失业时间上。文本没有指出总体失业水平与雇主榨取更多工作努力的权力之间的联系。如果雇主可以无成本地监控工人,这种联系会更加牢固。技术发展现在允许对某些工作进行几乎无成本的监控,例如亚马逊仓库中的拣货和包装工作。

因为雇主和工人之间的合同必然是不完整的,并且不能指定工作努力的水平,雇主可以尝试使用“解雇威胁和其他心理方法来决定工作节奏”。正如 Yanis Varoufakis 解释的那样,教科书理论没有考虑到的正是这些利润/工资联系的重要决定因素。32通过将劳动力描述为另一种商品,无论是否有意,它都会掩盖雇主对雇员行使某种程度权力的动机和能力,而雇员可能会以各种方式抵制这种权力。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考 请认准statistics-lab™

统计代写请认准statistics-lab™. statistics-lab™为您的留学生涯保驾护航。

金融工程代写

金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题,以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。

非参数统计代写

非参数统计指的是一种统计方法,其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型;这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。

广义线性模型代考

广义线性模型(GLM)归属统计学领域,是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。

术语 广义线性模型(GLM)通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归,以及方差分析和方差分析(仅含固定效应)。

有限元方法代写

有限元方法(FEM)是一种流行的方法,用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。

有限元是一种通用的数值方法,用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程(即一些边界值问题)。为了解决一个问题,有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分,称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的,它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的:用于求解的数值域,它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统,以模拟整个问题。然后,有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。

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随机分析代写


随机微积分是数学的一个分支,对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。

时间序列分析代写

随机过程,是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体,参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现,其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值(如1秒,5分钟,12小时,7天,1年),因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中,往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录,以得到其自身发展的规律。

回归分析代写

多元回归分析渐进(Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics)属于计量经济学领域,主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法,可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系,在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中,其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括:数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发,包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统,其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题,尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题,而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问,这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展,得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中,它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域,MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要,工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数(M 文件)的综合集合,可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

R语言代写问卷设计与分析代写
PYTHON代写回归分析与线性模型代写
MATLAB代写方差分析与试验设计代写
STATA代写机器学习/统计学习代写
SPSS代写计量经济学代写
EVIEWS代写时间序列分析代写
EXCEL代写深度学习代写
SQL代写各种数据建模与可视化代写

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|THE STANDARD TEXT

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  • Statistical Inference 统计推断
  • Statistical Computing 统计计算
  • Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
  • Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
  • (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
  • Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
  • Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
  • Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|THE STANDARD TEXT

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Model building and model testing

Science is a method – a process of forming hypotheses, making predictions and testing the predictions against the facts. Sometimes a hypothesis will emerge from inference: looking at the world and making a generalization about it. Sometimes it will emerge from a process of deduction: thinking about the world in a systematic way. Usually deduction involves trying to separate what is essential about a problem from its irrelevant details. When we do this, we have created a simplified version of reality, or a model of reality. Thus, building models necessarily entails making assumptions that are unrealistic – otherwise they wouldn’t be simplifying.

A map does something similar; only those details relevant to the map’s purpose are included. The details that are left out don’t matter if the map is useful. Similarly, if a model makes good predictions, then those aspects of reality that are ignored don’t matter. Therefore, it’s inappropriate to judge the usefulness of a model by the realism of its assumptions; the only relevant test is the accuracy of the model’s predictions.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Examples of economic models

The production possibility frontier (PPF) Let’s begin with a simple two-person economy where things are produced. We can imagine the situation faced by the

fictional $18^{\text {th}}$-century shipwrecked sailor, Robinson Crusoe. Crusoe on his island has to divide his time between two activities, fishing and gathering coconuts. Devoting more time to fishing implies less time for coconuts; the opportunity cost of one more fish is the number of coconuts forgone.

Next, Crusoe meets Friday, who also fishes and gathers coconuts. Friday is less productive at both tasks, but especially at gathering coconuts; when it comes to fishing he is only slightly worse than Crusoe. Having met, should they continue to work in isolation? Since Crusoe is more productive in everything, could it be in his best interests to continue to go it alone?

It turns out that specialization and exchange (trade) can benefit them both. It doesn’t matter that Crusoe is more productive (or has an ‘absolute advantage’) in producing both fish and coconuts. Crusoe should spend more time gathering coconuts (at which he is much better), and Friday should spend more time fishing (at which he is only a little worse). Such an arrangement will increase their total production of fish and coconuts.

To demonstrate this in a more interesting context, let’s replace individuals with countries. This allows us to see the gains from international trade. The model has two purposes: to illustrate some important concepts as simply as possible, while making predictions, in this case about the pattern of production and trade between two countries.

Our story will feature two countries (England and Canada), two industries (wheat and cloth) and one scarce resource, or ‘factor of production’, labour. This parallels the demonstration of comparative advantage by David Ricardo in 1817 , and for that reason is often called the Ricardian model of trade.

Comparative advantage and the gains from trade Suppose that one unit of labour can produce 5 bushels of wheat or 10 yards of cloth in England; whereas one unit of labour can produce 100 bushels of wheat or 50 yards of cloth in Canada. These data are shown in Table $2.1$ below.

Clearly, Canadian labour is more productive in both industries; so Canada has an absolute advantage in both. But the opportunity cost of producing cloth is lower in England than in Canada.

In particular, it takes one tenth of a unit of labour to produce 1 yard of cloth in England. But one tenth of a unit of labour could have produced half a bushel of wheat in England. Thus, the opportunity cost of a yard of cloth is half a bushel of wheat in England. Following the same logic, the opportunity cost of 1 yard of cloth in Canada is 2 bushels of wheat.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|The individual|Positive and normative economics

Economic models can be used only to shed light on questions of fact. This is the subject matter of positive economics, which focuses on the way the world actually works; it can help us to determine whether positive statements, or statements

about fact, are true or false. For example, ‘an increase in the minimum wage will increase unemployment for young and unskilled workers’ is a positive statement. It may not be true, but it is still a positive statement in so far as it can be refuted or confirmed by appealing to the empirical evidence.

On the other hand, economic models can’t be used to shed light on how the world ought to be. This involves making value judgements, often involving questions of fairness or equity, and is the subject matter of normative economics. For example, the statement ‘there should be no homeless people in rich developed countries’ is a normative statement based on values – it cannot be tested by appealing to empirical evidence.

This distinction helps to explain why there is a public perception of widespread disagreement among economists. Economists, like other citizens, have different values; therefore they often disagree over normative issues. But on positive issues decided by economic analysis and empirical evidence, there is widespread consensus. For example, a 2011 survey of American economists found that 74 percent agreed with the statement ‘A minimum wage increases unemployment among young and unskilled workers.’ 95 percent agreed that ‘Tariffs and import quotas usually reduce general economic welfare’. . (We set out a model of the minimum wage in the next chapter and look at tariffs in Chapter 10.)

Positive economics occupies most of economists’ time and effort. On normative issues, economists have no more expertise than anyone else and so they can offer no scientific answers to those questions. For example, what constitutes a fair or equitable distribution of income or wealth is a matter of individual judgement. What economic policy should do to improve equity is ultimately something that society’s political institutions will have to decide.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|THE STANDARD TEXT

微观经济学代考

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Model building and model testing

科学是一种方法——形成假设、做出预测并根据事实检验预测的过程。有时会从推理中得出一个假设:观察世界并对其进行概括。有时它会出现在一个演绎过程中:以系统的方式思考世界。通常,演绎涉及尝试将问题的本质与不相关的细节区分开来。当我们这样做时,我们就创造了现实的简化版本,或者现实的模型。因此,构建模型必然需要做出不切实际的假设——否则它们不会被简化。

地图做类似的事情;仅包括与地图目的相关的那些细节。如果地图有用,忽略的细节无关紧要。同样,如果一个模型做出了很好的预测,那么那些被忽略的现实方面就无关紧要了。因此,不宜以假设的真实性来判断模型的有用性;唯一相关的测试是模型预测的准确性。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Examples of economic models

生产可能性边界 (PPF) 让我们从一个简单的两人经济生产开始。我们可以想象当时面临的情况

虚构的18th -世纪海难水手鲁滨逊漂流记。在他的岛上,克鲁索不得不将他的时间分配给两项活动,钓鱼和采集椰子。花更多时间钓鱼意味着更少的时间用于椰子;多一条鱼的机会成本就是放弃的椰子数量。

接下来,克鲁索遇见了星期五,他也钓鱼和收集椰子。星期五在这两项任务上效率较低,尤其是在收集椰子方面;在钓鱼方面,他只比克鲁索差一点。见面后,他们是否应该继续隔离工作?既然克鲁索在任何事情上都更有效率,那么继续单干是否符合他的最大利益?

事实证明,专业化和交流(贸易)可以使他们双方受益。克鲁索在生产鱼和椰子方面效率更高(或具有“绝对优势”)并不重要。克鲁索应该花更多时间采集椰子(他在这方面要好得多),周五应该花更多时间钓鱼(在这方面他只差一点)。这样的安排将增加他们的鱼和椰子的总产量。

为了在更有趣的背景下证明这一点,让我们用国家代替个人。这让我们看到了国际贸易的收益。该模型有两个目的:尽可能简单地说明一些重要概念,同时对两国之间的生产和贸易模式进行预测。

我们的故事将讲述两个国家(英格兰和加拿大)、两个行业(小麦和布匹)和一种稀缺资源,或“生产要素”,即劳动力。这与大卫·李嘉图在 1817 年对比较优势的证明相似,因此通常被称为李嘉图贸易模型。

比较优势和贸易收益 而在加拿大,一个单位的劳动力可以生产 100 蒲式耳小麦或 50 码布。这些数据如下表所示。2.1

显然,加拿大劳动力在这两个行业中的生产力都更高。所以加拿大在这两方面都有绝对优势。但英国生产布料的机会成本低于加拿大。

特别是,在英国生产 1 码布需要十分之一的劳动力。但是在英格兰,十分之一的劳动单位可以生产半蒲式耳的小麦。因此,在英格兰,一码布的机会成本是半蒲式耳小麦。按照同样的逻辑,加拿大 1 码布的机会成本是 2 蒲式耳小麦。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|The individual|Positive and normative economics

经济模型只能用于阐明事实问题。这是积极经济学的主题,关注世界的实际运作方式;它可以帮助我们确定是正面陈述,还是陈述

关于事实,是真还是假。例如,“提高最低工资将增加年轻和非技术工人的失业率”是一个积极的陈述。这可能不是真的,但它仍然是一个积极的陈述,只要它可以通过诉诸经验证据来反驳或证实。

另一方面,经济模型不能用来阐明世界应该如何。这涉及做出价值判断,通常涉及公平或公平问题,并且是规范经济学的主题。例如,“富裕的发达国家不应有无家可归的人”这一陈述是基于价值观的规范性陈述——它不能通过诉诸经验证据来检验。

这种区别有助于解释为什么公众普遍认为经济学家之间存在分歧。经济学家和其他公民一样,有不同的价值观;因此,他们经常在规范问题上存在分歧。但在经济分析和经验证据决定的积极问题上,存在广泛共识。例如,2011 年对美国经济学家的一项调查发现,74% 的人同意“最低工资会增加年轻和非技术工人的失业率”这一说法。95% 的人同意“关税和进口配额通常会降低总体经济福利”。. (我们在下一章中建立了最低工资模型,并在第 10 章中研究关税。)

实证经济学占据了经济学家的大部分时间和精力。在规范问题上,经济学家并不比其他任何人都拥有更多的专业知识,因此他们无法对这些问题提供科学的答案。例如,什么构成收入或财富的公平或公平分配是个人判断的问题。经济政策应该做什么来改善公平最终是社会政治机构必须决定的事情。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考 请认准statistics-lab™

统计代写请认准statistics-lab™. statistics-lab™为您的留学生涯保驾护航。

金融工程代写

金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题,以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。

非参数统计代写

非参数统计指的是一种统计方法,其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型;这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。

广义线性模型代考

广义线性模型(GLM)归属统计学领域,是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。

术语 广义线性模型(GLM)通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归,以及方差分析和方差分析(仅含固定效应)。

有限元方法代写

有限元方法(FEM)是一种流行的方法,用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。

有限元是一种通用的数值方法,用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程(即一些边界值问题)。为了解决一个问题,有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分,称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的,它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的:用于求解的数值域,它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统,以模拟整个问题。然后,有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构,多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务,包括但不限于Essay代写,Assignment代写,Dissertation代写,Report代写,小组作业代写,Proposal代写,Paper代写,Presentation代写,计算机作业代写,论文修改和润色,网课代做,exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中,本科,研究生等海外留学全阶段,辐射金融,经济学,会计学,审计学,管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者,也有海外名校硕博留学生,每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力,专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创,100%专业,100%准时,100%满意。

随机分析代写


随机微积分是数学的一个分支,对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。

时间序列分析代写

随机过程,是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体,参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现,其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值(如1秒,5分钟,12小时,7天,1年),因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中,往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录,以得到其自身发展的规律。

回归分析代写

多元回归分析渐进(Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics)属于计量经济学领域,主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法,可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系,在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中,其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括:数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发,包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统,其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题,尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题,而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问,这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展,得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中,它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域,MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要,工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数(M 文件)的综合集合,可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

R语言代写问卷设计与分析代写
PYTHON代写回归分析与线性模型代写
MATLAB代写方差分析与试验设计代写
STATA代写机器学习/统计学习代写
SPSS代写计量经济学代写
EVIEWS代写时间序列分析代写
EXCEL代写深度学习代写
SQL代写各种数据建模与可视化代写

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|THE ANTI-TEXT

如果你也在 怎样代写微观经济学Microeconomics这个学科遇到相关的难题,请随时右上角联系我们的24/7代写客服。

微观经济学是主流经济学的一个分支,研究个人和企业在做出有关稀缺资源分配的决策时的行为以及这些个人和企业之间的相互作用。

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我们提供的微观经济学Microeconomics及其相关学科的代写,服务范围广, 其中包括但不限于:

  • Statistical Inference 统计推断
  • Statistical Computing 统计计算
  • Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
  • Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
  • (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
  • Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
  • Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
  • Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|THE ANTI-TEXT

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|The inherent tension with macroeconomics

As we mentioned one seminal book in economics, Adam Smith’s The Wealth of Nations, let’s mention another: John Maynard Keynes’s The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money. Published in 1936 during the Great Depression, it attempted to explain how unemployment

could persist, and what governments could do about it. In doing this, Keynes became the founding father of macroeconomics. This is the study of large aggregates, and explains such things as unemployment, inflation, exchange rates and interest rates; whereas microeconomics deals with smaller units, such as individual markets.

Keynes’s message is the opposite of Smith’s. Whereas Smith emphasized that a capitalist market economy can be self-regulating and efficient, Keynes emphasized that it was inherently prone to cycles of boom and bust – and those periods of bust are terribly inefficient. Whereas Smith emphasized that rational decision-making leads to an efficient outcome, Keynes emphasized that people’s behaviour, particularly regarding business investment, is driven by waves of spontaneous optimism and pessimism and (implicitly) fuelled by greed, fear and the herd instinct.
When it comes to macroeconomics, Keynes’s thinking still dominates. It is generally accepted that the government must intervene in the economy to prevent both recessions and overblown expansions, and that it must regulate some sectors. Yet, when it comes to textbook microeconomics, the thinking of Adam Smith dominates. It’s an uneasy coexistence.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Scarcity and unlimited wants? Reconsidering the economic problem

According to the texts, the ‘economic problem’ is making choices that allocate our scarce resources in the best way given our unlimited wants. Difficult trade-offs are inevitable. But this view of the economic problem can be challenged in several ways.

Economists in the ‘post-Keynesian’ school reject scarcity as a fundamental truth. In their view, economies typically have unemployed resources. If those resources could be put to work, more of everything could be produced. We could have our cake and eat it too; there would be no opportunity cost if all the resources being put to work had been involuntarily unemployed. As Canadian economist Marc Lavoie writes, ¿… since full employment of resources is not assumed, the discussion of their efficient allocation is not a major issue. Rather, what is emphasized among post-Keynesian economists is the degree to which these resources are utilized. ${ }^{74}$

Post-Keynesians aren’t the only ones who reject scarcity as a basic economic condition. For example, Emily Northrop questions whether the texts’ assertion that people’s wants are insatiable is true. She notes that some people manage to resist consumerism and choose different lifestyles embodying simplicity, balance or connection (to the earth and to others). The fact that some are able to do this suggests unlimited wants aren’t innate. As she points out, the texts ignore the ‘cultural and economic institutions that nurture human wants’, such as advertising. Their assertion of insatiability effectively legitimates and promotes consumerism. ${ }^{5}$

Northrop also points out that the notion of unlimited wants puts all wants on an equal footing: one person’s want for a subsistence diet is no more important than a millionaire’s want for precious jewellery. This equality of wants reflects the market value system that no goods are intrinsically more worthy than others – just as no preferences are more worthy than others. This is clearly a value judgement and one that many people reject. Yet economics, which unquestioningly adopts this approach, claims to be an objective social science that avoids making value judgements!

If we accept this view of unlimited wants, the economic problem can never be solved once and for all. But if we reject the view that all wants have equal merit, the economic problem can be redefined in a way that has a solution. Northrop cites John Maynard Keynes’s view that the economic problem is the ‘struggle for subsistence’ and that it could be solved if everyone’s basic needs were met. Keynes distinguished between two kinds of needs: those which are ‘absolute in the sense that we feel them whatever the situation of our fellow human beings may be, and those which are relative’, which depend only on what others have and may indeed be unlimited. However, for Keynes, absolute needs took priority and he foresaw the possibility of the economic problem being solved (in the then developed countries at least) within a century of the time that he was writing. ${ }^{6}$

This definition of the economic problem clearly requires a value judgement about which needs get moral weight, just as the one in the text does. But Keynes’s definition puts equity and the distribution of income front and centre. It contrasts with the textbook approach of treating equity as a political issue outside the scope of economic analysis.

In general, we could think of economics as being about ‘how societies organize themselves to support human life and its flourishing’ – or about how they fail to do so. Such a ‘provisioning’ definition of economics encompasses both markets and families, both money and care’, as Julie Nelson puts it. ${ }^{7}$

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|The individual versus the corporation

Marglin argues that the textbook focus on individuals is problematic. John Kenneth Galbraith went further. He thought the textbook focus on individuals was a source of grave error and bias because in the real world the individual is not the agent that matters most. The corporation is.

By having the wrong focus, economics is able to deny the importance of power and political interests.

Textbooks assume that rational individuals with stable preferences, uninfluenced by advertising, allocate their spending to maximize their own happiness. This suggests that individuals, through their spending, exercise ultimate control over both what is produced and how it is produced. Of course, entrepreneurs and corporate managers actually make those decisions. But (so the conventional argument goes) they are governed by their anticipations of market response – they cannot survive if customers don’t buy. Thus, even large corporations are subordinate to the market.
Further, textbooks assume that the state is subordinate to individuals through the ballot box. At the very least, government is assumed to be neutral, intervening to correct market failure as best it can, and to redistribute income to make market outcomes more equitable.

But this idealized world is so far removed from the real world that it is little more than a myth, or ‘perhaps even a fraud’. ${ }^{\prime 1}$ The power of the largest corporations rivals that of the state; indeed, they often hijack the state’s power for their own purposes. In reality, we see the management of the consumer by corporations; and we see the subordination of the state to corporate interests.

Galbraith saw economic life as a bipolar phenomenon. In one part of the economy there are vast numbers of small-scale businesses, where the market is paramount and the state is remote. This is the part featured in economic instruction and in political speeches, even as it fast disappears. ‘For the small retailer, Wal-Mart awaits. For the family farm, there are the massive grain and fruit enterprises and the modern large-scale meat producers’.12

The other part of the American economy consists of a few hundred enormously powerful corporations. What they need in research and development, or environmental policy, or public works, or emergency financial support, becomes public policy. Government policy is influenced in widely accepted ways. “Between public and private bureaucracies between GM and the Department of Transportation, General Dynamics and the Pentagon – there is a deeply symbiotic relationship. Each of these organizations can do much for the other. There is even, between them, a large and continuous interchange of executive personnel’. 13

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|THE ANTI-TEXT

微观经济学代考

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|The inherent tension with macroeconomics

正如我们提到的一本经济学开创性著作,亚当·斯密的《国富论》,让我们再提一提:约翰·梅纳德·凯恩斯的《就业、利息和货币通论》。它于 1936 年在大萧条时期出版,试图解释失业是如何

可能会持续下去,以及政府可以做些什么。通过这样做,凯恩斯成为宏观经济学的奠基人。这是对大集合的研究,并解释了失业、通货膨胀、汇率和利率等问题;而微观经济学则处理较小的单位,例如个别市场。

凯恩斯的信息与史密斯的相反。史密斯强调资本主义市场经济可以自我调节和高效,而凯恩斯强调它天生就容易出现繁荣和萧条的周期——而那些萧条时期效率极低。史密斯强调理性决策会带来有效的结果,而凯恩斯强调人们的行为,尤其是在商业投资方面,是由自发的乐观和悲观情绪驱动的,并且(隐含地)受到贪婪、恐惧和从众本能的推动。
谈到宏观经济学,凯恩斯的思想仍然占主导地位。人们普遍认为,政府必须干预经济以防止经济衰退和过度扩张,并且必须对某些部门进行监管。然而,当谈到教科书的微观经济学时,亚当·斯密的思想占主导地位。这是一种不安的共存。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Scarcity and unlimited wants? Reconsidering the economic problem

根据文本,“经济问题”是根据我们无限的需求做出以最佳方式分配我们稀缺资源的选择。艰难的取舍是不可避免的。但这种对经济问题的看法可能会在几个方面受到挑战。

“后凯恩斯主义”学派的经济学家拒绝将稀缺性作为一个基本事实。在他们看来,经济体通常有失业资源。如果这些资源可以投入使用,那么可以生产更多的东西。我们可以吃蛋糕,也可以吃;如果所有投入工作的资源都非自愿地失业,就不会有机会成本。正如加拿大经济学家马克·拉沃(Marc Lavoie)所写,¿…… 由于没有假设资源充分利用,因此讨论资源的有效分配不是主要问题。相反,后凯恩斯主义经济学家强调的是这些资源的利用程度。74

后凯恩斯主义者并不是唯一拒绝将稀缺作为基本经济条件的人。例如,艾米莉·诺斯罗普质疑文本中关于人们的需求是无法满足的断言是否属实。她指出,有些人设法抵制消费主义,选择体现简单、平衡或联系(与地球和其他人)的不同生活方式。有些人能够做到这一点的事实表明,无限的欲望并不是与生俱来的。正如她所指出的,这些文本忽略了“培养人类需求的文化和经济制度”,例如广告。他们对永不满足的主张有效地合法化并促进了消费主义。5

诺斯罗普还指出,无限需求的概念将所有需求放在了平等的基础上:一个人对维持生计的饮食的需求并不比百万富翁对珍贵珠宝的需求重要。这种需求平等反映了市场价值体系,即没有商品在本质上比其他商品更有价值——就像没有偏好比其他商品更有价值一样。这显然是一种价值判断,被许多人拒绝。然而,毫无疑问地采用这种方法的经济学却声称是一门避免做出价值判断的客观社会科学!

如果我们接受这种无限欲望的观点,经济问题就永远无法一劳永逸地解决。但是,如果我们拒绝所有需求都具有同等价值的观点,那么经济问题就可以以一种有解决方案的方式重新定义。诺斯罗普引用约翰梅纳德凯恩斯的观点,即经济问题是“生存斗争”,如果每个人的基本需求得到满足,它就可以解决。凯恩斯区分了两种需要:一种是“绝对的,即我们无论同胞的处境如何都能感觉到它们,另一种是相对的”,它们只取决于他人拥有的东西,而且可能确实是无限的. 然而,对于凯恩斯来说,6

经济问题的这种定义显然需要对哪些需求具有道德重要性进行价值判断,就像文本中的那样。但凯恩斯的定义将公平和收入分配放在首位和中心位置。它与将公平视为经济分析范围之外的政治问题的教科书方法形成对比。

一般来说,我们可以将经济学视为“社会如何组织起来以支持人类生活及其繁荣”——或者关于它们如何未能做到这一点。正如朱莉·纳尔逊所说,经济学的这种“供给”定义既包括市场也包括家庭,包括金钱和关怀。7

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|The individual versus the corporation

Marglin 认为,教科书对个人的关注是有问题的。约翰·肯尼斯·加尔布雷思走得更远。他认为教科书对个人的关注是严重错误和偏见的根源,因为在现实世界中,个人并不是最重要的代理人。公司是。

由于关注点错误,经济学能够否认权力和政治利益的重要性。

教科书假定,偏好稳定、不受广告影响的理性个体分配支出以最大化自己的幸福。这表明个人通过他们的支出对生产的产品和生产方式进行最终控制。当然,企业家和企业经理实际上会做出这些决定。但是(按照传统的说法)他们受制于对市场反应的预期——如果客户不购买,他们就无法生存。因此,即使是大公司也服从于市场。
此外,教科书假设国家通过投票箱从属于个人。至少,政府被认为是中立的,尽可能地进行干预以纠正市场失灵,并重新分配收入以使市场结果更加公平。

但是这个理想化的世界与现实世界相去甚远,以至于它只不过是一个神话,或者“甚至可能是一个骗局”。′1大公司的权力可以与国家的权力相媲美;事实上,他们经常为了自己的目的劫持国家权力。实际上,我们看到的是企业对消费者的管理;我们看到国家从属于企业利益。

加尔布雷思将经济生活视为一种两极现象。在经济的某一部分,有大量的小企业,市场至上,国家偏远。这是经济指导和政治演讲中的特色部分,即使它很快消失了。’对于小型零售商,沃尔玛等待着。对于家庭农场来说,有大量的粮食和水果企业和现代大型肉类生产商。12

美国经济的另一部分由数百家强大的公司组成。他们在研发、环境政策、公共工程或紧急财政支持方面所需要的东西,都变成了公共政策。政府政策受到广泛接受的方式的影响。“通用汽车与交通部、通用动力公司和五角大楼之间的公共和私人官僚机构之间​​存在着深刻的共生关系。这些组织中的每一个都可以为对方做很多事情。在他们之间,甚至还有大量的、持续不断的行政人员交流”。13

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考 请认准statistics-lab™

统计代写请认准statistics-lab™. statistics-lab™为您的留学生涯保驾护航。

金融工程代写

金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题,以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。

非参数统计代写

非参数统计指的是一种统计方法,其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型;这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。

广义线性模型代考

广义线性模型(GLM)归属统计学领域,是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。

术语 广义线性模型(GLM)通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归,以及方差分析和方差分析(仅含固定效应)。

有限元方法代写

有限元方法(FEM)是一种流行的方法,用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。

有限元是一种通用的数值方法,用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程(即一些边界值问题)。为了解决一个问题,有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分,称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的,它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的:用于求解的数值域,它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统,以模拟整个问题。然后,有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构,多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务,包括但不限于Essay代写,Assignment代写,Dissertation代写,Report代写,小组作业代写,Proposal代写,Paper代写,Presentation代写,计算机作业代写,论文修改和润色,网课代做,exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中,本科,研究生等海外留学全阶段,辐射金融,经济学,会计学,审计学,管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者,也有海外名校硕博留学生,每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力,专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创,100%专业,100%准时,100%满意。

随机分析代写


随机微积分是数学的一个分支,对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。

时间序列分析代写

随机过程,是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体,参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现,其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值(如1秒,5分钟,12小时,7天,1年),因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中,往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录,以得到其自身发展的规律。

回归分析代写

多元回归分析渐进(Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics)属于计量经济学领域,主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法,可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系,在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中,其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括:数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发,包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统,其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题,尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题,而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问,这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展,得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中,它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域,MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要,工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数(M 文件)的综合集合,可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

R语言代写问卷设计与分析代写
PYTHON代写回归分析与线性模型代写
MATLAB代写方差分析与试验设计代写
STATA代写机器学习/统计学习代写
SPSS代写计量经济学代写
EVIEWS代写时间序列分析代写
EXCEL代写深度学习代写
SQL代写各种数据建模与可视化代写

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|THE STANDARDTEXT

如果你也在 怎样代写微观经济学Microeconomics这个学科遇到相关的难题,请随时右上角联系我们的24/7代写客服。

微观经济学是主流经济学的一个分支,研究个人和企业在做出有关稀缺资源分配的决策时的行为以及这些个人和企业之间的相互作用。

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写微观经济学Microeconomics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写微观经济学Microeconomics代写方面经验极为丰富,各种代写微观经济学Microeconomics相关的作业也就用不着说。

我们提供的微观经济学Microeconomics及其相关学科的代写,服务范围广, 其中包括但不限于:

  • Statistical Inference 统计推断
  • Statistical Computing 统计计算
  • Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
  • Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
  • (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
  • Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
  • Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
  • Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|THE STANDARDTEXT

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Economics is the science of choice

It seems obvious that economics is about the economy; so a common sense definition of economics might be that it concerns itself with money, markets, business and how people make a living. But this definition is too narrow. Economics is not just the study of money and markets. It studies families, criminal behaviour and governments’ policy choices. It includes the study of population growth, standards of living and voting patterns. It can also have a shot at explaining human behaviours in relation to dating and marriage.

The fact that economics can examine subjects traditionally studied by other social sciences suggests that content does not define the discipline. As long as a topic has a social dimension, we can look at it from the perspective of any social science.

Most textbooks define economics as the science of choice. It’s about how individuals and society make choices, and how those choices are affected by incentives. This definition includes all aspects of life: a couple’s choice to have a child, or a political party’s choice of its platform. Its drawback is that it doesn’t help to differentiate economics from the other social sciences, since they too look at how we make choices.

What distinguishes economics from other social sciences is its commitment to rational choice theory. This assumes that individuals are rational, selfinterested, have stable and consistent preferences, and wish to maximize their own happiness (or ‘utility’), given their constraints – such as the amount of time or money that they have. Social situations and collective behaviours are analysed as resulting from freely chosen individual actions. Just as science attempts to understand the properties of metals by understanding the atoms that comprise them, so economics attempts to understand society by analysing the behaviour of the individuals who comprise it.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Scarcity

Why is choice necessary? Economics assumes that people have unlimited wants. Therefore, no matter how abundant resources may be, they will always be scarce in the face of these unlimited wants.

A fundamental question in economics has always been how do we maximize happiness? Economists maintain that while we must allow people to decide for themselves what makes them happy, we know that people always want more. Therefore, society needs to use its resources as efficiently as possible to produce as much as possible; and society needs to expand what it can produce as quickly as possible. This explains why economists emphasize the goals of efficiency and growth.

But does the concept of unlimited wants mean that someone will want an unlimited number of new coats, or an unlimited number of pairs of shoes? No, it doesn’t. Along with unlimited wants, economists normally assume that the more you have of something, the less you value one more unit of it. So, unlimited wants does not mean we want an unlimited amount of a specific thing. Rather, it means that there will always be something that we will desire. There will always be new desires. Our desires and wants are fundamentally unlimited.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Marginal thinking: costs and benefits

You are familiar with the margin on a page – it lies at the edge. And when someone describes a soccer player as being marginal they mean he is a fringe player, on the edge of inclusion. Economists use the word marginal in a similar way. Marginal cost is the cost at the margin – or to be more precise, the cost of an additional unit of output or consumption. Thus, the marginal cost of wheat is the additional cost of producing one more unit of wheat. Similarly, marginal benefit is just the benefit someone gets from having one more unit of something. We might measure benefit in hypothetical utils of satisfaction; or in dollar terms – the maximum willingness to pay for one more unit. As the science of choice, the core economic framework is remarkably simple: all activities are undertaken to the point where marginal cost equals marginal benefit. Why? Because at this point total net benefit is maximized. An example will help. Imagine we are old-style Soviet planners, trying to determine the quantity of Russian-style fur hats to produce. Let’s assume that the marginal cost of producing a fur hat increases the more we produce – so we draw it as the upward-sloping line in the upper diagram of Figure 1.1. Further assume that the more hats are produced, the less one more hat is valued – so the marginal benefit line slopes down. How many hats should we produce? If we produce only $\mathrm{Q}_{1}$ units, the marginal benefit of one more hat is $\$ 6$, but the marginal cost is only \$3. This means that the extra benefit of one more unit is greater than the extra cost of producing it. Therefore, we can improve society’s well-being by producing one more. This remains true as we increase production to $Q^{}$. But we should not produce more than $Q^{}$. Beyond that point marginal cost exceeds marginal benefit, reducing total net benefit from hat production. Total net benefit is shown in the lower diagram of Figure 1.1. Clearly, this is maximized at an output of $Q^{*}$.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|THE STANDARDTEXT

微观经济学代考

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Economics is the science of choice

很明显,经济学是关于经济的。因此,经济学的常识定义可能是它与金钱、市场、商业以及人们如何谋生有关。但是这个定义太狭隘了。经济学不仅仅是对货币和市场的研究。它研究家庭、犯罪行为和政府的政策选择。它包括对人口增长、生活水平和投票模式的研究。它还可以解释与约会和婚姻有关的人类行为。

经济学可以检查传统上由其他社会科学研究的学科这一事实表明,内容并不能定义学科。只要一个话题具有社会维度,我们就可以从任何社会科学的角度来看待它。

大多数教科书将经济学定义为选择科学。这是关于个人和社会如何做出选择,以及这些选择如何受到激励的影响。这个定义包括生活的方方面面:夫妻选择生孩子,或政党选择其平台。它的缺点是它无助于将经济学与其他社会科学区分开来,因为它们也关注我们如何做出选择。

经济学与其他社会科学的区别在于它对理性选择理论的承诺。这假设个人是理性的、自私的、有稳定和一致的偏好,并希望最大化他们自己的幸福(或“效用”),考虑到他们的限制——例如他们拥有的时间或金钱的数量。社会情境和集体行为被分析为自由选择的个人行为的结果。正如科学试图通过了解构成金属的原子来了解金属的特性一样,经济学也试图通过分析构成社会的个人的行为来了解社会。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Scarcity

为什么需要选择?经济学假设人们有无限的需求。因此,无论资源多么丰富,在这些无限的需求面前,它们总是稀缺的。

经济学中的一个基本问题一直是我们如何最大化幸福?经济学家坚持认为,虽然我们必须让人们自己决定什么让他们快乐,但我们知道人们总是想要更多。因此,社会需要尽可能有效地利用其资源,尽可能多地生产;社会需要尽快扩大它可以生产的东西。这就解释了为什么经济学家强调效率和增长的目标。

但无限需求的概念是否意味着有人会想要无限数量的新外套,或者无限数量的鞋子?不,它没有。除了无限的需求外,经济学家通常认为你拥有的东西越多,你就越不重视它的一个单位。因此,无限的需求并不意味着我们想要无限量的特定事物。相反,这意味着总会有我们想要的东西。总会有新的欲望。我们的欲望和欲望基本上是无限的。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Marginal thinking: costs and benefits

您熟悉页面上的页边距——它位于边缘。当有人将一名足球运动员描述为边缘球员时,他们的意思是他是一名边缘球员,处于包容的边缘。经济学家以类似的方式使用“边际”一词。边际成本是边际成本——或者更准确地说,是额外单位产出或消费的成本。因此,小麦的边际成本是多生产一单位小麦的额外成本。同样,边际收益只是某人从拥有更多单位的某物中获得的收益。我们可以用假设的满意度来衡量收益;或以美元计算——多买一个单位的最大意愿。作为选择的科学,核心经济框架非常简单:所有活动都进行到边际成本等于边际收益的程度。为什么?因为此时总的净收益最大化。一个例子会有所帮助。想象一下,我们是老式的苏联计划者,试图确定要生产的俄罗斯式皮帽的数量。让我们假设生产一顶皮帽的边际成本随着我们生产的越多而增加——所以我们将其绘制为图 1.1 上图中的向上倾斜的线。进一步假设生产的帽子越多,价值越少,因此边际收益线向下倾斜。我们应该生产多少顶帽子?如果我们只生产 让我们假设生产一顶皮帽的边际成本随着我们生产的越多而增加——所以我们将其绘制为图 1.1 上图中的向上倾斜的线。进一步假设生产的帽子越多,价值越少,因此边际收益线向下倾斜。我们应该生产多少顶帽子?如果我们只生产 让我们假设生产一顶皮帽的边际成本随着我们生产的越多而增加——所以我们将其绘制为图 1.1 上图中的向上倾斜的线。进一步假设生产的帽子越多,价值越少,因此边际收益线向下倾斜。我们应该生产多少顶帽子?如果我们只生产问1单位,多一顶帽子的边际收益是$6,但边际成本仅为3美元。这意味着多生产一单位的额外收益大于生产它的额外成本。因此,我们可以通过多生产一个来改善社会的福祉。当我们将产量增加到问. 但我们不应该生产超过问. 超过这一点,边际成本超过边际收益,减少了帽子生产的总净收益。总净收益如图 1.1 的下图所示。显然,这在输出为问∗.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考 请认准statistics-lab™

统计代写请认准statistics-lab™. statistics-lab™为您的留学生涯保驾护航。

金融工程代写

金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题,以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。

非参数统计代写

非参数统计指的是一种统计方法,其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型;这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。

广义线性模型代考

广义线性模型(GLM)归属统计学领域,是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。

术语 广义线性模型(GLM)通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归,以及方差分析和方差分析(仅含固定效应)。

有限元方法代写

有限元方法(FEM)是一种流行的方法,用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。

有限元是一种通用的数值方法,用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程(即一些边界值问题)。为了解决一个问题,有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分,称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的,它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的:用于求解的数值域,它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统,以模拟整个问题。然后,有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构,多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务,包括但不限于Essay代写,Assignment代写,Dissertation代写,Report代写,小组作业代写,Proposal代写,Paper代写,Presentation代写,计算机作业代写,论文修改和润色,网课代做,exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中,本科,研究生等海外留学全阶段,辐射金融,经济学,会计学,审计学,管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者,也有海外名校硕博留学生,每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力,专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创,100%专业,100%准时,100%满意。

随机分析代写


随机微积分是数学的一个分支,对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。

时间序列分析代写

随机过程,是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体,参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现,其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值(如1秒,5分钟,12小时,7天,1年),因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中,往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录,以得到其自身发展的规律。

回归分析代写

多元回归分析渐进(Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics)属于计量经济学领域,主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法,可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系,在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中,其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括:数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发,包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统,其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题,尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题,而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问,这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展,得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中,它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域,MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要,工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数(M 文件)的综合集合,可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

R语言代写问卷设计与分析代写
PYTHON代写回归分析与线性模型代写
MATLAB代写方差分析与试验设计代写
STATA代写机器学习/统计学习代写
SPSS代写计量经济学代写
EVIEWS代写时间序列分析代写
EXCEL代写深度学习代写
SQL代写各种数据建模与可视化代写