标签: ECON 2506

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|ECON1901D

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微观经济学是主流经济学的一个分支,研究个人和企业在做出有关稀缺资源分配的决策时的行为以及这些个人和企业之间的相互作用。

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写微观经济学Microeconomics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写微观经济学Microeconomics代写方面经验极为丰富,各种代写微观经济学Microeconomics相关的作业也就用不着说。

我们提供的微观经济学Microeconomics及其相关学科的代写,服务范围广, 其中包括但不限于:

  • Statistical Inference 统计推断
  • Statistical Computing 统计计算
  • Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
  • Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
  • (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
  • Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
  • Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
  • Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|ECON1901D

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Morality and Corporate Social Responsibility

In the realistic case that the institutional structure of a state is imperfect, in the sense that it does not always provide incentives for (Pareto-)efficient behavior, the question is how the people within society do or should deal with these inefficiencies. An example of this is when property rights are imperfectly enforced because of high transaction costs. The better part of everyday transactions is, for example, formally but not materially protected by property rights, because it would be too costly to enforce them. If a customer buys a bottle of orange juice at a kiosk and the retail clerk refuses to give back the change, the opportunity costs of calling the police, verifying the tort (which is difficult, if the retail clerk refuses to confess), etc. are likely prohibitive. Alternatively, on that subject, it is equally unlikely that the retail clerk can do much to prevent the customer from saying thank you and walking away with the bottle of juice without paying for it. Property rights cannot explain the fact that the overwhelming number of these transactions take place smoothly and efficiently.

There must be other mechanisms at work, and I will briefly discuss two of them. First, the interaction may not be singular but rather repeated and, if there is always a probability that the customer and the retail clerk will meet again in the future, it would be rather shortsighted to sacrifice future trades for the (relatively small) present gain. Repeated interactions can, therefore, be used to build up a reputation as a reliable trading partner, which can stabilize transactions, even in situations where formal property rights cannot be protected by the state. Second, the trading partner may have an intrinsic motivation to play fair. There is broad, scientific consensus by now that individuals are, for good evolutionary reasons, not always selfish, but have the ability and also (sometimes) the desire to act morally. The marginal willingness to keep one’s promises, to pay one’s bills, etc., however, depends very much on the perception of the situational context. If people have the feeling that-by and large-society gives everyone his or her fair share, their willingness to cooperate, to act fairly and to voluntarily follow certain moral standards of behavior is much larger than in a situation that is considered unfair from the beginning. Social norms and the intrinsic desire to act morally are then substitutes for formal property-rights enforcement. The more porous the system of property-rights enforcement is, the more important moral behavior becomes.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Four Boundary Cases

Coming back to the variations of the bakery example from the last subchapter, the distinctive difference between the two types of environmental interdependencies (sewage and air pollution) was the physical “reach” of the interdependency-causing activity. In the sewage-case, there was only one person, the fisherman, who was affected by the interdependency with the bakery whereas, in the air-pollution case, the bakery influenced all the residents. These differences in the number of people, who are influenced by economic activities, are an important element in the classification of goods and services and in developing an understanding of the functioning of markets.

The implicit assumption behind the model of competitive markets discussed in Chap. 4 was that the interdependency is bilateral. A typical example for a bilateral interdependency is an apple. Either one or the other person can eat anple (one cannot eat the same apple twice), so Ann’s decision to sell an apple to Bill has no direct physical consequences for third parties. The same was true in the sewage example. However, the bilateralism of the interdependency was a result of the fact that only one fisherman made his living from the lake. If two fishermen had have cast their nets into the lake, the interdependency would have been trilateral, because the emissions by the factory would have reduced the catches of both fishermen. In the air-pollution example, the reach of the interdependency was even larger, covering all residents of the area. This observation motivates the following definition.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Choice Sets and Preferences

In order to develop a decision theory, one needs two conceptual ingredients. First, a set of alternatives from which an individual can choose. Call it a choice set and denote it by $X=\left{x^{1}, x^{2}, \ldots, x^{n}\right}$, in which $x^{i}, i=1, \ldots, n$ is one of the possible alternatives and assume, for simplicity, that the total number of alternatives $n$ is finite. The idea of a choice set is very general. If one goes to a café, one’s choice set is a subset of all of the items on the menu. This implies that an alternative can be a list of individual items, like “one cup of tea, two scones, and one portion of orange jam.” Mathematically speaking, this type of list is called a tuple. If $x^{i}$ is the above-mentioned alternative, it could be denoted as $x^{i}={$ quantity of tea, number of scones, quantity of orange jam $}={1,2,1}$. If one goes to vote, one’s choice set is the set of all admissible parties or candidates, and if one is deciding what to do after high school, one’s choice set is the set of all potential professions.

Second, the individual may prefer some alternatives to others, which is an expression of her taste or preferences. Assume that she is able to make pairwise comparisons of all the alternatives in $X$ to make statements like, “I prefer alternative $x^{i}$ to alternative $x^{j}, “$ or “I am indifferent between alternative $x^{j}$ and alternative $x^{j} . “$ In order to have a lean notation, economists use the following symbols for these statements: “I prefer alternative $x^{i}$ to alternative $x^{j}$ ” is denoted by ” $x^{i}>x^{j “}$ and “I am indifferent between alternative $x^{i}$ and alternative $x^{j “}$ by ” $x^{i} \sim x^{j}$.”

It is important to understand the exact meaning of the terminology. Mathematically speaking, one takes two arbitrary elements of $X, x^{j}$ and $x^{j}$, and compares them to each other. This comparison is called a binary relation on $X$. The strict preference relation, ” $>, “$ and the indifference relation, ” $\sim$,” can therefore be denoted as a subset of the Cartesian product of $X, X \times X$. (I am slightly abusing the notation by using the symbols as names for both the relation and for indicating the binary comparison of alternatives.)

Here is an example: Assume that Ann can choose between an apple, $x^{1}$, an orange, $x^{2}$, and a cherry, $x^{3}$. In this case, the choice set is equal to $X=\left{x^{1}, x^{2}, x^{3}\right}$ and the Cartesian product is the set of all ordered pairs $X \times$ $X=\left{\left(x^{1}, x^{1}\right),\left(x^{1}, x^{2}\right),\left(x^{1}, x^{3}\right),\left(x^{2}, x^{1}\right),\left(x^{2}, x^{2}\right),\left(x^{2}, x^{3}\right),\left(x^{3}, x^{1}\right),\left(x^{3}, x^{2}\right),\right.$, $\left.\left(x^{3}, x^{3}\right)\right}$. Assume that Ann prefers apples to oranges and is indifferent between oranges and cherries, $x^{1}>x^{2}, x^{2} \sim x^{3}$. If one reads a pair $\left(x^{i}, x^{j}\right)$ as ” $x^{i}$ stands in relation $R$ to $x^{j}$,” one can represent her preferences, ” $>$,” by the subset of pairs $\left{\left(x^{1}, x^{2}\right)\right}$ and her preferences, ” $\sim$,” by the subset of pairs $\left{\left(x^{1}, x^{1}\right),\left(x^{2}, x^{2}\right),\left(x^{2}, x^{3}\right),\left(x^{3}, x^{3}\right)\right}$. Note that the pairs $\left(x^{i}, x^{i}\right)$ are elements of the subset, because Ann is indifferent between an alternative and itself. This property is not self-evident from a purely mathematical point of view and, therefore, sometimes stated as an assumption of the preference relation that is known as reflexivity.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|ECON1901D

微观经济学代考

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Morality and Corporate Social Responsibility

在一个国家的制度结构不完善的现实情况下,从某种意义上说,它并不总是为(帕累托)有效率的行为提供激励,问题是社会中的人们如何做或应该如何处理这些低效率。这方面的一个例子是,由于交易成本高,产权执行不完善。例如,日常交易中较好的部分是形式上但不受财产权保护,因为执行它们的成本太高。如果顾客在售货亭买了一瓶橙汁,而零售店员拒绝归还找零,那么报警、核实侵权行为的机会成本(如果零售店员拒绝认罪,这很困难)等。可能令人望而却步。或者,在那个主题上,零售店员也不太可能做很多事情来阻止顾客说谢谢,然后不付钱就拿着一瓶果汁走开。产权无法解释绝大多数此类交易顺利且高效地进行的事实。

肯定还有其他机制在起作用,我将简要讨论其中的两个。首先,互动可能不是单一的,而是重复的,如果客户和零售店员将来总是有可能再次见面,那么为了(相对较小的)当前收益而牺牲未来的交易是相当短视的. 因此,重复的互动可以用来建立作为可靠贸易伙伴的声誉,这可以稳定交易,即使在正式产权不受国家保护的情况下也是如此。其次,贸易伙伴可能具有公平竞争的内在动机。现在有广泛的科学共识,出于良好的进化原因,个人并不总是自私的,但有能力并且(有时)也有道德行为的愿望。然而,遵守承诺、支付账单等的边际意愿在很大程度上取决于对情境背景的感知。如果人们有这样的感觉,总的来说,大社会给予每个人他或她公平的份额,那么他们合作、公平行事和自愿遵守某些道德行为标准的意愿要比在被认为不公平的情况下大得多。开始。社会规范和道德行为的内在愿望就可以替代正式的产权执法。产权执法制度越漏洞,道德行为就越重要。他们合作、公平行事和自愿遵守某些道德行为标准的意愿比在从一开始就被认为不公平的情况下要大得多。社会规范和道德行为的内在愿望就可以替代正式的产权执法。产权执法制度越漏洞,道德行为就越重要。他们合作、公平行事和自愿遵守某些道德行为标准的意愿比在从一开始就被认为不公平的情况下要大得多。社会规范和道德行为的内在愿望就可以替代正式的产权执法。产权执法制度越漏洞,道德行为就越重要。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Four Boundary Cases

回到上一小节中面包店示例的变化,两种环境相互依赖(污水和空气污染)之间的显着差异是相互依赖活动的物理“范围”。在污水案例中,只有一个人,渔夫,受到与面包店相互依赖的影响,而在空气污染案例中,面包店影响了所有居民。这些受经济活动影响的人数差异是商品和服务分类以及了解市场运作的重要因素。

第 1 章讨论的竞争市场模型背后的隐含假设。四是相互依赖是双边的。双边相互依赖的一个典型例子是苹果。一个人或另一个人都可以吃苹果(一个人不能吃同一个苹果两次),所以安将苹果卖给比尔的决定对第三方没有直接的身体后果。污水的例子也是如此。然而,相互依存的双边主义是由于只有一名渔民以湖为生的事实。如果两名渔民将网撒入湖中,则相互依赖将是三方的,因为工厂的排放会减少两名渔民的渔获量。在空气污染的例子中,相互依存的范围更大,覆盖了该地区的所有居民。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Choice Sets and Preferences

为了发展一种决策理论,需要两个概念成分。首先,一组可供个人选择的备选方案。称其为选择集并表示为X=\left{x^{1}, x^{2}, \ldots, x^{n}\right}X=\left{x^{1}, x^{2}, \ldots, x^{n}\right}, 其中X一世,一世=1,…,n是可能的备选方案之一,为简单起见,假设备选方案的总数n是有限的。选择集的概念非常笼统。如果一个人去咖啡馆,一个人的选择集是菜单上所有项目的子集。这意味着替代方案可以是单个项目的列表,例如“一杯茶、两个烤饼和一份橙酱”。从数学上讲,这种类型的列表称为元组。如果X一世是上述替代方案,可以表示为X一世=$q在一个n吨一世吨是○F吨和一个,n在米b和r○FsC○n和s,q在一个n吨一世吨是○F○r一个nG和j一个米$=1,2,1. 如果一个人去投票,一个人的选择集是所有可接受的政党或候选人的集合,如果一个人决定高中毕业后做什么,一个人的选择集是所有潜在职业的集合。

其次,个人可能更喜欢一些替代品,这是她品味或偏好的表达。假设她能够对所有备选方案进行成对比较X做出诸如“我更喜欢另类X一世替代Xj,“或“我对替代品无动于衷Xj和替代Xj.“为了获得精益符号,经济学家在这些陈述中使用以下符号:“我更喜欢替代X一世替代Xj” 表示为 ”X一世>Xj“和“我对替代品无动于衷X一世和替代Xj“经过 ”X一世∼Xj.”

理解术语的确切含义很重要。从数学上讲,一个取两个任意元素X,Xj和Xj, 并将它们相互比较。这种比较称为二元关系X. 严格的偏好关系,”>,“和无差异关系,”∼,”因此可以表示为笛卡尔积的一个子集X,X×X. (我通过使用符号作为关系名称和指示替代项的二进制比较来稍微滥用符号。)

下面是一个例子:假设 Ann 可以选择一个苹果,X1, 一个橙子,X2,还有一颗樱桃,X3. 在这种情况下,选择集等于X=\left{x^{1}, x^{2}, x^{3}\right}X=\left{x^{1}, x^{2}, x^{3}\right}笛卡尔积是所有有序对的集合X× X=\left{\left(x^{1}, x^{1}\right),\left(x^{1}, x^{2}\right),\left(x^{1}, x^{3}\right),\left(x^{2}, x^{1}\right),\left(x^{2}, x^{2}\right),\left(x^ {2}, x^{3}\right),\left(x^{3}, x^{1}\right),\left(x^{3}, x^{2}\right),\右.$, $\left.\left(x^{3}, x^{3}\right)\right}X=\left{\left(x^{1}, x^{1}\right),\left(x^{1}, x^{2}\right),\left(x^{1}, x^{3}\right),\left(x^{2}, x^{1}\right),\left(x^{2}, x^{2}\right),\left(x^ {2}, x^{3}\right),\left(x^{3}, x^{1}\right),\left(x^{3}, x^{2}\right),\右.$, $\left.\left(x^{3}, x^{3}\right)\right}. 假设安更喜欢苹果而不是橙子,并且对橙子和樱桃无动于衷,X1>X2,X2∼X3. 如果一个人读到一对(X一世,Xj)作为 ”X一世有关系R至Xj,“一个可以代表她的喜好,”>,” 通过对的子集\left{\left(x^{1}, x^{2}\right)\right}\left{\left(x^{1}, x^{2}\right)\right}和她的喜好,”∼,” 通过对的子集\left{\left(x^{1}, x^{1}\right),\left(x^{2}, x^{2}\right),\left(x^{2}, x^ {3}\right),\left(x^{3}, x^{3}\right)\right}\left{\left(x^{1}, x^{1}\right),\left(x^{2}, x^{2}\right),\left(x^{2}, x^ {3}\right),\left(x^{3}, x^{3}\right)\right}. 请注意,对(X一世,X一世)是子集的元素,因为 Ann 对备选方案和自身无动于衷。从纯数学的角度来看,这个属性并不是不言而喻的,因此,有时将其表述为偏好关系的假设,即自反性。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考 请认准statistics-lab™

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金融工程代写

金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题,以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。

非参数统计代写

非参数统计指的是一种统计方法,其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型;这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。

广义线性模型代考

广义线性模型(GLM)归属统计学领域,是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。

术语 广义线性模型(GLM)通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归,以及方差分析和方差分析(仅含固定效应)。

有限元方法代写

有限元方法(FEM)是一种流行的方法,用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。

有限元是一种通用的数值方法,用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程(即一些边界值问题)。为了解决一个问题,有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分,称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的,它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的:用于求解的数值域,它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统,以模拟整个问题。然后,有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。

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随机分析代写


随机微积分是数学的一个分支,对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。

时间序列分析代写

随机过程,是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体,参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现,其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值(如1秒,5分钟,12小时,7天,1年),因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中,往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录,以得到其自身发展的规律。

回归分析代写

多元回归分析渐进(Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics)属于计量经济学领域,主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法,可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系,在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中,其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括:数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发,包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统,其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题,尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题,而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问,这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展,得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中,它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域,MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要,工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数(M 文件)的综合集合,可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

R语言代写问卷设计与分析代写
PYTHON代写回归分析与线性模型代写
MATLAB代写方差分析与试验设计代写
STATA代写机器学习/统计学习代写
SPSS代写计量经济学代写
EVIEWS代写时间序列分析代写
EXCEL代写深度学习代写
SQL代写各种数据建模与可视化代写

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|ECON6010

如果你也在 怎样代写微观经济学Microeconomics这个学科遇到相关的难题,请随时右上角联系我们的24/7代写客服。

微观经济学是主流经济学的一个分支,研究个人和企业在做出有关稀缺资源分配的决策时的行为以及这些个人和企业之间的相互作用。

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写微观经济学Microeconomics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写微观经济学Microeconomics代写方面经验极为丰富,各种代写微观经济学Microeconomics相关的作业也就用不着说。

我们提供的微观经济学Microeconomics及其相关学科的代写,服务范围广, 其中包括但不限于:

  • Statistical Inference 统计推断
  • Statistical Computing 统计计算
  • Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
  • Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
  • (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
  • Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
  • Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
  • Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|ECON6010

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|The Bigger Picture

It is now time to use these examples to develop a more comprehensive view on institutions and transaction costs. The idea that something may be missing in standard theory, which helps explain institutions, goes back to a paper by Ronald Coase that he wrote as early as Coase (1937). Standard theory models firms simply as technological phenomena transforming inputs into outputs, and makes a behavioral assumption that they seek to maximize profits. This “black-box approach” to the firm had the advantage of simplicity and it allowed for generating a lot of deep insights into the functioning of markets, some of which the last chapter covered. However, the standard approach turned out to be ill-suited to answering the question of why firms exist in the first place, given the apparent efficiency of markets. Ronald Coase’s major insight was that transaction costs are at the heart of the problem of optimal institutional design. Unfortunately, transaction costs are a vexed concept, because they turned out to be very difficult to define in a precise and useful way.

Much effort has been devoted to understand the exact conditions under which the invisible hand can leverage self-interest into social welfare and the most useful insight, for this purpose, goes back to another paper by Ronald Coase (1960). If society is interested in promoting efficiency, then every institution that is compatible with this goal must share the same structure: it has to make sure that individuals fully internalize the effects of their behavior on others.

As suggested above, internalization of interdependencies can be achieved by a complete set of competitive markets. The completeness of the markets implies the absence of an important category of market-related transaction costs. The term “transaction costs” is closely related to institutions, since transaction costs can be used to assess the relative “imperfectness” of different institutions (see Definition 6.2). This understanding allows it to put the First Theorem of Welfare Economics into perspective. It was clear from the work of theorists of socialist planning like Oskar Lange $(1936 ; 1937)$ that, under the conditions of the First Theorem of Welfare Economics, a central planning mechanism is efficient as well. In order to find the equilibrium price, “the market” needs information that, in the hands of a central planner, would be sufficient to implement the efficient allocation directly without the detour of market transactions. This implies that, under ideal circumstances, the institutional structure does not matter for the efficiency of the resulting allocation.

Coase (1960) generalized this idea by creating the awareness that it is neither the complete set of markets nor the idealized planner mechanism that is responsible for the result, but two other, implicit assumptions, namely the rationality of economic actors and the absence of transaction costs.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Externalities in Traffic

A society sufficiently sophisticated to produce the internal combustion engine has not had the sophistication to develop cheap and efficient public transport?

Yes, boss … it’s true. There’s hardly any buses, the trains are hopelessly underfunded, and hence the entire population is stuck in traffic. (Ben Elton, 1991, Gridlock)
The most common feeling of car drivers who are locked in a traffic jam is anger, but these psychological costs are only the tip of the iceberg regarding economic costs caused by crowded streets and overburdened infrastructure. The main causes of traffic jams are accidents, poor infrastructure, peak-hour traffic, and variable traffic speeds on congested roads. The Centre for Economics and Business Research and INRIX (a company providing Internet services pertaining to road traffic) has estimated the impact of such delays on the British, French, German, and American economies. Here are some of the main findings (US data):

  • The costs of congestion summed up to $\$ 124$ billion in 2013 . This cost is (ceteris paribus) expected to increase $50 \%$ to $\$ 186$ billion by 2030 . The cumulative cost over the 17-year period is projected to be $\$ 2.8$ trillion.
  • The annual cost of traffic for each American household is $\$ 1700$ today. This cost is expected to rise to $\$ 2300$ in 2030 , with huge regional variations (the cost is $\$ 6000$ in the Los Angeles area). To put these numbers into perspective, the median household income was $\$ 51,939$ in 2013 .
  • The monetary value of carbon emissions caused by congestion was $\$ 300$ million in 2013 . By 2030 , this is expected to rise to $\$ 538$ million, totaling $\$ 7.6$ billion over the 17 -year period.

Congestion costs of traffic can legitimately count as an externality, because the main causes of these costs are (a) opportunity costs of time, (b) costs of carbon and other emissions, and (c) price effects of higher transportation costs. In order to understand this conjecture, it makes sense to look at a car driver’s decision problem. When deciding if, when or where to use streets, she takes individual costs and benefits into consideration. However, the lion’s share of costs and benefits spills over onto other traffic participants and the general public. Emissions cause either regional or global effects, which are not included in the individual’s decision problem, and other drivers’ wasted time is also neglected. The reason is that decentralized negotiations about when and where to use the streets would lead to prohibitive transaction costs.
What else can one do to make traffic more efficient? What are the institutional alternatives? Solving congestion is not easy. Building more roads, or widening existing ones, can encourage people to drive even more. Charging road users for travelling at busy periods can help to solve the efficiency problem, but it may cause other problems. To highlight them, one can focus on the London Congestion Charge. The standard charge in 2016 was $£ 11.50$ on most motor vehicles operating within the Congestion Charge Zone (Central London) between 07:00 a.m. and 08:00 p.m., Monday through Friday. In theory, the charge should be set such that the individual driver pays a price that is equal to the costs caused by his decision to use a specific network of streets during a given time period. Hence, if the charge is calculated correctly, one can infer that the externality caused by a single driver is approximately $£ 11.50$. If the price of going to central London goes up, demand should go down and one gets the desired increase in efficiency, because congestion is reduced. What makes this instrument problematic is that it has distributional consequences, because the fee is especially burdensome for the relatively poor, who are disproportionately deterred from coming to the city center by car.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Environmental Externalities

There is a broad consensus among scientists that the rate of species loss is greater now than at any time in human history. In 2007, the German Federal Environment Minister acknowledged that up to $30 \%$ of all species would be extinct by 2010 . The Living Planet Report (World Wildlife Fund, 2014) comes to the conclusion that “the number of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish across the globe is, on average, about half the size it was 40 years ago.” If one follows the scientific consensus and assumes that part of the loss in biodiversity is a consequence of the economic system, the question is whether this loss is a result of externalities. Is it possible that mass extinction of species can be Pareto-efficient? This is a tough question, because it requires information about the role of biodiversity in supporting human life on this planet and it relies on assumption about the way humans value biodiversity per se. If one starts with the conservative assumption that biodiversity has only instrumental value in supporting human life and if one admits that intergenerational externalities exist, because current generations do not adequately take the interests of future ones into consideration, then one can make a case for the existence of an externality. This is if one assumes that a more diverse biosphere is more likely to support human life than an impoverished one. This latter conjecture, however, is built on deep uncertainty of the complex role of the biosphere in supporting human life. The deeper problem is that the concept of Pareto efficiency, as seen before, is blind with respect to the distribution of gains from trade, and, more generally, economic welfare. A policy where the present generation has a big “party” and uses up most of the natural resources, leaving a devastated planet where future generations scrap along at the subsistence level, is Pareto-efficient as long as there is no alternative policy to make future generations better off without harming the present ones.

The concept of Pareto efficiency has a lot of shortcomings when it comes to long-term problems, which is why is has been supplemented, and even replaced, by the concept of sustainability in the normative social and natural sciences and in politics. The most popular definition of the concept of sustainable development goes back to the so-called Brundtland Commission of the United Nations (1987): “sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” This concept implicitly acknowledges the right of future generations to live a decent life and is, therefore, stronger than the Pareto criterion. However, it still suffers from

the need to understand the complex role of ecosystems and it is anthropocentric in nature. I will come back to this latter point at the end of this subchapter.Returning to a less complex externality, the example of an oil spill illustrates the basic problems and solutions. Assume that a company operates a fleet of oil tankers, which move large quantities of crude oil from its point of extraction to the refineries. The environmental risk of this business model is that oil spills, due to accidents, affect the (marine) environment and may also affect the fishing industry. One can divide the discussion into two parts. Part one assumes that it is possible to attach a meaningful monetary value to the damage caused by oil spills and to ask for institutional arrangements that lead to efficient outcomes. Part two scrutinizes this assumption and takes a closer look at the normative issues that are involved when attaching price tags to oil spills.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|ECON6010

微观经济学代考

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|The Bigger Picture

现在是时候使用这些例子来更全面地了解制度和交易成本了。有助于解释制度的标准理论中可能缺少某些东西的想法可以追溯到罗纳德科斯早在科斯(1937 年)时写的一篇论文。标准理论将公司简单地建模为将投入转化为产出的技术现象,并做出他们寻求利润最大化的行为假设。这种对公司的“黑盒方法”具有简单的优势,它可以对市场的运作产生很多深刻的见解,其中一些在最后一章中已经介绍过。然而,考虑到市场的明显效率,标准方法被证明不适合回答公司为什么存在的问题。罗纳德·科斯的主要见解是交易成本是最优制度设计问题的核心。不幸的是,交易成本是一个令人烦恼的概念,因为事实证明它们很难以精确和有用的方式定义。

已经付出了很多努力来了解看不见的手可以将自身利益用于社会福利的确切条件,为此目的,最有用的见解可以追溯到 Ronald Coase (1960) 的另一篇论文。如果社会对提高效率感兴趣,那么与此目标兼容的每个机构都必须具有相同的结构:它必须确保个人将其行为对其他人的影响完全内化。

如上所述,相互依赖的内部化可以通过一套完整的竞争市场来实现。市场的完整性意味着不存在与市场相关的重要交易成本类别。“交易成本”一词与制度密切相关,因为交易成本可用于评估不同制度的相对“不完善性”(见定义 6.2)。这种理解使其能够正确看待福利经济学第一定理。从奥斯卡兰格等社会主义计划理论家的工作中可以清楚地看到(1936;1937)也就是说,在福利经济学第一定理的条件下,中央计划机制也是有效的。为了找到均衡价格,“市场”需要这样的信息,在中央计划者手中,这些信息足以直接实施有效分配,而不会绕行市场交易。这意味着,在理想情况下,制度结构与最终分配的效率无关。

科斯 (1960) 通过建立这样一种意识来概括这一想法,即对结果负责的既不是完整的市场集,也不是理想化的计划机制,而是另外两个隐含的假设,即经济行为者的理性和不存在交易费用。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Externalities in Traffic

一个足够成熟到可以生产内燃机的社会还没有成熟到发展廉价和高效的公共交通?

是的,老板……这是真的。几乎没有公共汽车,火车资金不足,因​​此整个人口都陷入了交通困境。(Ben Elton, 1991, Gridlock)
堵车的汽车司机最常见的感觉是愤怒,但这些心理成本只是街道拥挤和基础设施负担过重造成的经济成本的冰山一角。交通拥堵的主要原因是事故、基础设施薄弱、高峰时段交通以及拥堵道路上的可变交通速度。经济与商业研究中心和 INRIX(一家提供与道路交通有关的互联网服务的公司)估计了此类延误对英国、法国、德国和美国经济的影响。以下是一些主要发现(美国数据):

  • 拥堵成本总计为$1242013 年 10 亿。该成本(在其他条件不变的情况下)预计会增加50%至$186到 2030 年 10 亿。预计 17 年期间的累计成本为$2.8兆。
  • 每个美国家庭每年的交通成本是$1700今天。预计该成本将上升至$23002030 年,地区差异巨大(成本为$6000在洛杉矶地区)。从这些数字来看,家庭收入中位数是$51,9392013 年。
  • 拥堵造成的碳排放的货币价值为$3002013 年百万。到 2030 年,预计这一数字将上升到$538万,总计$7.6在 17 年期间达到 10 亿美元。

交通拥堵成本可以合理地算作外部性,因为这些成本的主要原因是(a)时间的机会成本,(b)碳和其他排放的成本,以及(c)更高的运输成本的价格效应。为了理解这个猜想,看一下汽车驾驶员的决策问题是有意义的。在决定是否、何时或何地使用街道时,她会考虑个人成本和收益。然而,大部分成本和收益会溢出到其他交通参与者和公众身上。排放造成区域或全球影响,不包括在个人的决策问题中,其他司机浪费的时间也被忽略了。原因是关于何时何地使用街道的去中心化谈判会导致交易成本过高。
还可以做些什么来提高交通效率?有哪些制度选择?解决拥堵并不容易。修建更多的道路,或拓宽现有的道路,可以鼓励人们更多地开车。在繁忙时段向道路使用者收费可以帮助解决效率问题,但可能会导致其他问题。为了突出它们,可以关注伦敦拥堵费。2016年的标准收费是££11.50周一至周五上午 7:00 至晚上 8:00 期间在拥堵收费区(伦敦市中心)内运营的大多数机动车辆。理论上,收费应该这样设定,即单个司机支付的价格等于他决定在给定时间段内使用特定街道网络所造成的成本。因此,如果收费计算正确,可以推断出单个司机造成的外部性大约为££11.50. 如果去伦敦市中心的价格上涨,需求应该会下降,并且人们会获得期望的效率提高,因为拥堵减少了。使该工具存在问题的原因在于它具有分配后果,因为对于相对贫困的人来说,费用尤其沉重,他们被不成比例地阻止开车来市中心。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Environmental Externalities

科学家们普遍认为,现在物种丧失的速度比人类历史上任何时候都要大。2007 年,德国联邦环境部长承认,截至30%到 2010 年,所有物种将灭绝。地球生命力报告(世界野生动物基金会,2014 年)得出的结论是“全球哺乳动物、鸟类、爬行动物、两栖动物和鱼类的数量平均约为 40 年前的一半。” 如果人们遵循科学共识并假设生物多样性的部分丧失是经济系统的结果,那么问题是这种丧失是否是外部性的结果。物种的大规模灭绝是否有可能是帕累托有效的?这是一个棘手的问题,因为它需要有关生物多样性在支持地球上人类生活方面的作用的信息,并且它依赖于关于人类重视生物多样性本身的方式的假设。如果人们从保守的假设开始,即生物多样性在支持人类生活方面仅具有工具价值,并且如果人们承认存在代际外部性,因为当代人没有充分考虑未来人的利益,那么人们可以为存在的理由的外部性。这是如果人们假设一个更多样化的生物圈比一个贫困的生物圈更有可能支持人类生活。然而,后一种猜想是建立在生物圈在支持人类生命方面的复杂作用的深刻不确定性之上的。更深层次的问题是,如前所述,帕累托效率的概念对于贸易收益的分配以及更普遍的经济福利是盲目的。

帕累托效率的概念在涉及长期问题时存在很多不足,这就是为什么在规范的社会科学和自然科学以及政治中被可持续性概念补充甚至取代的原因。可持续发展概念最流行的定义可以追溯到所谓的联合国布伦特兰委员会(1987 年):“可持续发展是在不损害后代满足其自身需求的能力的情况下满足当前需求的发展。需要。” 这一概念含蓄地承认后代有权过上体面的生活,因此比帕累托标准更强。然而,它仍然遭受着

需要了解生态系统的复杂作用,它本质上是以人类为中心的。我将在本小节的末尾回到后一点。回到不太复杂的外部性,漏油的例子说明了基本问题和解决方案。假设一家公司经营着一支油轮船队,将大量原油从其提取点运送到炼油厂。这种商业模式的环境风险是,由于事故,石油泄漏会影响(海洋)环境,也可能影响渔业。可以将讨论分为两部分。第一部分假设可以为石油泄漏造成的损害赋予有意义的货币价值,并要求制定能够产生有效结果的制度安排。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考 请认准statistics-lab™

统计代写请认准statistics-lab™. statistics-lab™为您的留学生涯保驾护航。

金融工程代写

金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题,以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。

非参数统计代写

非参数统计指的是一种统计方法,其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型;这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。

广义线性模型代考

广义线性模型(GLM)归属统计学领域,是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。

术语 广义线性模型(GLM)通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归,以及方差分析和方差分析(仅含固定效应)。

有限元方法代写

有限元方法(FEM)是一种流行的方法,用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。

有限元是一种通用的数值方法,用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程(即一些边界值问题)。为了解决一个问题,有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分,称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的,它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的:用于求解的数值域,它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统,以模拟整个问题。然后,有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构,多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务,包括但不限于Essay代写,Assignment代写,Dissertation代写,Report代写,小组作业代写,Proposal代写,Paper代写,Presentation代写,计算机作业代写,论文修改和润色,网课代做,exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中,本科,研究生等海外留学全阶段,辐射金融,经济学,会计学,审计学,管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者,也有海外名校硕博留学生,每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力,专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创,100%专业,100%准时,100%满意。

随机分析代写


随机微积分是数学的一个分支,对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。

时间序列分析代写

随机过程,是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体,参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现,其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值(如1秒,5分钟,12小时,7天,1年),因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中,往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录,以得到其自身发展的规律。

回归分析代写

多元回归分析渐进(Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics)属于计量经济学领域,主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法,可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系,在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中,其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括:数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发,包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统,其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题,尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题,而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问,这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展,得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中,它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域,MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要,工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数(M 文件)的综合集合,可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

R语言代写问卷设计与分析代写
PYTHON代写回归分析与线性模型代写
MATLAB代写方差分析与试验设计代写
STATA代写机器学习/统计学习代写
SPSS代写计量经济学代写
EVIEWS代写时间序列分析代写
EXCEL代写深度学习代写
SQL代写各种数据建模与可视化代写

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|ECON2516

如果你也在 怎样代写微观经济学Microeconomics这个学科遇到相关的难题,请随时右上角联系我们的24/7代写客服。

微观经济学是主流经济学的一个分支,研究个人和企业在做出有关稀缺资源分配的决策时的行为以及这些个人和企业之间的相互作用。

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写微观经济学Microeconomics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写微观经济学Microeconomics代写方面经验极为丰富,各种代写微观经济学Microeconomics相关的作业也就用不着说。

我们提供的微观经济学Microeconomics及其相关学科的代写,服务范围广, 其中包括但不限于:

  • Statistical Inference 统计推断
  • Statistical Computing 统计计算
  • Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
  • Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
  • (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
  • Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
  • Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
  • Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|ECON2516

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Willingness to Pay and Preferences

The argument about the efficiency of market equilibria relies heavily on a rather innocuous-looking, implicit assumption about the relationship between the willingness to pay and the “true” willingness to pay of individuals. Research, which has been primarily conducted behavioral economists, neuroscientists, and psychologists has increasingly scrutinized whether one can always identify the expressed willingness to pay or sell with the “true” willingness to pay or sell. We will introduce and discuss these fields in Chap. 10 and 11 in detail.

The identification of both is an example of what economists call the theory of revealed preference, which makes the point that the true, normatively relevant preferences of a person can be elicited from his or her (market) behavior. This conjecture has strong implications for the normative evaluation of individual choices, because it implies that individuals make no mistakes when they choose among different alternatives. This does not mean that they never regret their choices, but that any regret is a necessary consequence of resolved uncertainty: I caught a virus during my trip to a foreign country so, ex-post, I would have preferred to have stayed at home. However, ex-ante, before the trip, and given my subjective assessment of the risks, it was still the right decision.

Whether or not the observed willingness to pay is a reliable measure for the actual preferences of the individuals is a highly controversial and disputed question, because much is potentially at stake. If one assumes that people sometimes do not know what is best for them, then the door is wide open for paternalistic interventions that undermine individual freedoms. However, at the same time, not interfering with individual freedoms implies that those who understand those weaknesses and design products and pricing strategies to their advantage can exploit systematic weaknesses in the ability to make correct decisions. Chapter 10 on behavioral economics and Chap. 11 on the psychology and neuroscience of decision processes will address these issues in detail. The picture that will emerge is that people act rationally only to a limited extent. Especially when confronted with new and complex situations, they make predictable and systematic mistakes, but even in situations they are familiar with, irrational behavior is often observed.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Transaction Costs

There is a plethora of different institutions in modern economies: markets, profitoriented firms, non-profit organizations, and government agencies. These are all responsible for the mediation of the production and distribution of goods and services, all with their own distinctive logic for providing and distributing goods and services. Any economic theory that aims to understand the reasons for the existence and boundaries of these different ways to organize economic activity must go beyond the First and Second Theorem of Welfare Economics.

Therefore, the challenge is to identify the missing concept that explains institutional diversity. In order to do so, it makes sense to look at the logic of the First Theorem of Welfare Economics from a different perspective. This allows one to reach a deeper understanding of the reasons why markets can be efficient, but also points towards possible explanations for the limitations of markets.

On a very basic level, scarcity implies that individual acts and consequences are interdependent. My decision to drink this glass of wine implies that no one else can drink it. My decision to wear a blue sweater implies (a) that no one else can wear this sweater at the same time and (b) that everyone passing along my way has to see me wearing it. In a world without scarcity, acts would be independent from each other and, therefore, individual goals would not compete with each other. Therefore, what scarcity does is to make individual acts interdependent. As a result, my decisions have repercussions on some other peoples’ well-being, and the question is whether I take these consequences into consideration when I make a decision. Efficiency, from this perspective, requires exactly this: that each and every person takes the effects of his or her decisions on others into consideration and behaves accordingly. The technical term is that the person internalizes the effects of his or her behavior on others.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|An Example

Assume a firm produces some good (bread) by means of capital and labor. The capital (oven) is debt-financed and labor (the baker’s time) is employed. This economic activity has three effects. First, the bread makes those people eating it better off (it is crispy, tasty, nourishing bread). Second, it ties capital to the specific use, which has opportunity costs in the sense that it cannot be used elsewhere. Third, the baker spends some time baking bread, which also has opportunity costs either in the form of forgone alternative earnings or in the form of forgone leisure time. With competitive markets for capital, labor, and goods, there will be market prices for both inputs and the output. The owner of the bakery has to decide how much bread to bake, how much capital to invest in, and how much labor to hire. The price for bread indicates the social value of an additional loaf of bread, which implies that one correctly internalizes the additional effect on well-being that one creates with the bread. The price for capital (the interest rate) signals the opportunity costs of the next-best use of capital, which implies that the owner correctly internalizes the “damage” that one creates by detracting capital from alternative uses. Additionally, the price for labor (wage) signals the opportunity costs of labor, i.e., the loss in welfare that results because the baker cannot do anything else during the time of bread baking. This example illustrates not only that decisions are interdependent but also that markets make sure that they are made in an efficiency-enhancing way.
So far, so good, but one still is not at the point where it becomes apparent how markets are not efficient. In order to reach this point, I will modify the above example. In the first modification, the production of the product now has sewage as a necessary byproduct, which is dumped into a nearby lake. This solely reduces the profit of a local fisherman. Can one still count on markets doing their magic and leading the economy towards efficiency? The answer is that it depends, and this is where the legal side of the problem enters the picture. There are three possible scenarios:

  1. The firm has the legal right to dump sewage.
  2. The fisherman has the legal right to prohibit the dumping of sewage.
  3. The existence and allocation of rights is unclear.
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|ECON2516

微观经济学代考

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Willingness to Pay and Preferences

关于市场均衡效率的争论在很大程度上依赖于一个看似无害的隐含假设,即支付意愿与个人“真实”支付意愿之间的关系。主要由行为经济学家、神经科学家和心理学家进行的研究越来越多地审视人们是否总能将表达的支付或销售意愿与“真实”的支付或销售意愿相鉴别。我们将在第一章介绍和讨论这些领域。10 和 11 详细。

两者的识别是经济学家所谓的显性偏好理论的一个例子,该理论表明,一个人的真实、规范相关的偏好可以从他或她的(市场)行为中得出。这一猜想对个体选择的规范性评价具有重要意义,因为它暗示个体在选择不同的选项时不会犯错误。这并不意味着他们从不后悔自己的选择,但任何后悔都是解决不确定性的必然结果:我在国外旅行期间感染了病毒,所以事后我宁愿呆在家里。然而,事前,在旅行之前,考虑到我对风险的主观评估,这仍然是正确的决定。

观察到的支付意愿是否是衡量个人实际偏好的可靠衡量标准,这是一个极具争议和争议的问题,因为有很多潜在风险。如果人们假设人们有时不知道什么对他们最有利,那么就会为破坏个人自由的家长式干预敞开大门。然而,与此同时,不干涉个人自由意味着那些了解这些弱点并为自己设计产品和定价策略的人可以利用系统性弱点做出正确决策的能力。第 10 章关于行为经济学和第 1 章。关于决策过程的心理学和神经科学的第 11 卷将详细讨论这些问题。将会出现的情况是,人们仅在有限的范围内理性行事。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Transaction Costs

现代经济中有大量不同的机构:市场、营利性公司、非营利组织和政府机构。这些都负责调解商品和服务的生产和分配,它们都有自己独特的逻辑来提供和分配商品和服务。任何旨在理解这些不同组织经济活动方式存在的原因和界限的经济理论都必须超越福利经济学第一和第二定理。

因此,挑战在于找出解释制度多样性的缺失概念。为了做到这一点,从不同的角度来看福利经济学第一定理的逻辑是有意义的。这使人们能够更深入地了解市场为何有效的原因,同时也指出了对市场局限性的可能解释。

在一个非常基本的层面上,稀缺意味着个人行为和后果是相互依赖的。我决定喝这杯酒意味着没有其他人可以喝它。我决定穿一件蓝色毛衣意味着(a)没有其他人可以同时穿这件毛衣,并且(b)路过我的每个人都必须看到我穿着它。在一个没有稀缺的世界中,行为将相互独立,因此,个人目标不会相互竞争。因此,稀缺性的作用是使个体行为相互依存。结果,我的决定会影响其他一些人的福祉,问题是我在做决定时是否考虑到这些后果。从这个角度来看,效率正是需要这样的:每个人都考虑到他或她的决定对他人的影响并采取相应的行动。技术术语是个人将他或她的行为对他人的影响内化。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|An Example

假设一家公司通过资本和劳动力生产某种商品(面包)。资本(烤箱)由债务融资,劳动力(面包师的时间)被雇佣。这种经济活动具有三个影响。首先,面包让那些吃它的人过得更好(它是香脆、美味、营养丰富的面包)。其次,它将资本与特定用途联系起来,这具有机会成本,因为它不能在其他地方使用。第三,面包师花一些时间烤面包,这也有机会成本,要么以放弃的替代收入的形式出现,要么以放弃的休闲时间的形式出现。在资本、劳动力和商品的竞争市场中,投入和产出都会有市场价格。面包店的老板必须决定烤多少面包,投资多少资本,雇佣多少劳动力。面包的价格表明了额外一条面包的社会价值,这意味着人们正确地内化了用面包创造的对幸福感的额外影响。资本价格(利率)表示次优使用资本的机会成本,这意味着所有者正确地内化了通过将资本从替代用途中减少所造成的“损害”。此外,劳动力价格(工资)表示劳动力的机会成本,即由于面包师在烘烤面包期间不能做任何其他事情而导致的福利损失。这个例子不仅说明了决策是相互依赖的,而且市场确保它们是以提高效率的方式做出的。这意味着一个人正确地内化了一个人用面包创造的对幸福感的额外影响。资本价格(利率)表示次优使用资本的机会成本,这意味着所有者正确地内化了通过将资本从替代用途中减少所造成的“损害”。此外,劳动力价格(工资)表示劳动力的机会成本,即由于面包师在烘烤面包期间不能做任何其他事情而导致的福利损失。这个例子不仅说明了决策是相互依赖的,而且市场确保它们是以提高效率的方式做出的。这意味着一个人正确地内化了一个人用面包创造的对幸福感的额外影响。资本价格(利率)表示次优使用资本的机会成本,这意味着所有者正确地内化了通过将资本从替代用途中减少所造成的“损害”。此外,劳动力价格(工资)表示劳动力的机会成本,即由于面包师在烘烤面包期间不能做任何其他事情而导致的福利损失。这个例子不仅说明了决策是相互依赖的,而且市场确保它们是以提高效率的方式做出的。资本价格(利率)表示次优使用资本的机会成本,这意味着所有者正确地内化了通过将资本从替代用途中减少所造成的“损害”。此外,劳动力价格(工资)表示劳动力的机会成本,即由于面包师在烘烤面包期间不能做任何其他事情而导致的福利损失。这个例子不仅说明决策是相互依存的,而且市场确保它们是以提高效率的方式做出的。资本价格(利率)表示次优使用资本的机会成本,这意味着所有者正确地内化了通过将资本从替代用途中减少所造成的“损害”。此外,劳动力价格(工资)表示劳动力的机会成本,即由于面包师在烘烤面包期间不能做任何其他事情而导致的福利损失。这个例子不仅说明了决策是相互依赖的,而且市场确保它们是以提高效率的方式做出的。由于面包师在烘烤面包期间不能做任何其他事情而导致的福利损失。这个例子不仅说明决策是相互依存的,而且市场确保它们是以提高效率的方式做出的。由于面包师在烘烤面包期间不能做任何其他事情而导致的福利损失。这个例子不仅说明决策是相互依存的,而且市场确保它们是以提高效率的方式做出的。
到目前为止,一切都很好,但还没有到市场效率不明显的地步。为了达到这一点,我将修改上面的例子。在第一次修改中,该产品的生产现在将污水作为必要的副产品,将其倾倒到附近的湖中。这只会减少当地渔民的利润。人们还能指望市场发挥作用并引导经济走向效率吗?答案是视情况而定,这就是问题的法律方面进入画面的地方。有三种可能的情况:

  1. 该公司拥有倾倒污水的合法权利。
  2. 渔民拥有禁止倾倒污水的合法权利。
  3. 权利的存在和分配不明确。
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考 请认准statistics-lab™

统计代写请认准statistics-lab™. statistics-lab™为您的留学生涯保驾护航。

金融工程代写

金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题,以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。

非参数统计代写

非参数统计指的是一种统计方法,其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型;这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。

广义线性模型代考

广义线性模型(GLM)归属统计学领域,是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。

术语 广义线性模型(GLM)通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归,以及方差分析和方差分析(仅含固定效应)。

有限元方法代写

有限元方法(FEM)是一种流行的方法,用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。

有限元是一种通用的数值方法,用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程(即一些边界值问题)。为了解决一个问题,有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分,称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的,它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的:用于求解的数值域,它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统,以模拟整个问题。然后,有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构,多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务,包括但不限于Essay代写,Assignment代写,Dissertation代写,Report代写,小组作业代写,Proposal代写,Paper代写,Presentation代写,计算机作业代写,论文修改和润色,网课代做,exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中,本科,研究生等海外留学全阶段,辐射金融,经济学,会计学,审计学,管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者,也有海外名校硕博留学生,每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力,专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创,100%专业,100%准时,100%满意。

随机分析代写


随机微积分是数学的一个分支,对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。

时间序列分析代写

随机过程,是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体,参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现,其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值(如1秒,5分钟,12小时,7天,1年),因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中,往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录,以得到其自身发展的规律。

回归分析代写

多元回归分析渐进(Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics)属于计量经济学领域,主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法,可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系,在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中,其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括:数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发,包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统,其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题,尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题,而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问,这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展,得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中,它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域,MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要,工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数(M 文件)的综合集合,可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

R语言代写问卷设计与分析代写
PYTHON代写回归分析与线性模型代写
MATLAB代写方差分析与试验设计代写
STATA代写机器学习/统计学习代写
SPSS代写计量经济学代写
EVIEWS代写时间序列分析代写
EXCEL代写深度学习代写
SQL代写各种数据建模与可视化代写

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|ECON 2506

如果你也在 怎样代写微观经济学Microeconomics这个学科遇到相关的难题,请随时右上角联系我们的24/7代写客服。

微观经济学是主流经济学的一个分支,研究个人和企业在做出有关稀缺资源分配的决策时的行为以及这些个人和企业之间的相互作用。

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写微观经济学Microeconomics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写微观经济学Microeconomics代写方面经验极为丰富,各种代写微观经济学Microeconomics相关的作业也就用不着说。

我们提供的微观经济学Microeconomics及其相关学科的代写,服务范围广, 其中包括但不限于:

  • Statistical Inference 统计推断
  • Statistical Computing 统计计算
  • Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
  • Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
  • (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
  • Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
  • Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
  • Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|ECON 2506

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Equilibrium

Have you ever thought about how it is possible that the baker knows that you will buy a bagel when you go to the city? When you enter his store, the bagel is just there, ready for you to buy and eat it. How come? How could the baker have known, even though you never ordered the bagel in advance? If this example seems a little bit underwhelming, to put it mildly, then you better think twice. The great miracle of the market mechanism is that millions and billions of people are making decisions in an apparently uncoordinated, decentralized way and, despite this fact, there is a great deal of order in market outcomes. How is this possible?

Well, the first hint is that decisions are, of course, not uncoordinated. They are coordinated by market prices that shape individual incentives to buy and sell (and,more generally, to act), so decisions in a market economy are decentralized, but not uncoordinated. The question then becomes: to what extent are prices able to coordinate individual behavior and what does this imply for the functioning of markets?

Economists put a lot of emphasis on the idea of equilibrium. To motivate a formal definition, look at the following example: assume that, at a given market price, demand exceeds supply, i.e., customers want to buy more than suppliers are willing to sell. A situation like this has an in-built tension, because some customers have to go home unsatisfied: the decentralized plans of the economic agents are mutually inconsistent. (One reaches the same conclusion in the opposite case of excessive supply.) Therefore, the only situation where all the plans of the economic agents are compatible is at a price where supply equals demand. This situation is called an equilibrium. It can be defined for the whole economy with $n$ different goods and associated markets (general equilibrium), or for a single market for good $i$, leaving the rest of the economy out of the picture (partial equilibrium). For simplicity, and without significance for the results, suppose that all customers have identical budgets, $b$.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Equilibrium Analysis

As one says, the proof of the pudding is in the eating so, the next step is to see how useful the model of perfect competition is for gaining better understanding of the economy. The most important comparative-static exercises for the supply and demand side have already been covered. This subchapter will now put them together to show how they can be used to develop one’s intuition for the effects of external shocks or economic policy. The case studies below are intended to give one a basic idea of how to analyze economic problems by means of models. The purpose is not to develop a complete picture, which would be a very demanding task. Even the very simple model of demand and supply gives one a lot of mileage in understanding complex social phenomena.

Case Study: How Bad Weather in Brazil Affects the Swiss Coffee Market Coffee is an important agricultural product worldwide, and Brazil is the world’s largest coffee producer. In the days before the so-called second and third waves of coffee culture, coffee was essentially run down to a commodity of moderate quality and low prices. Low quality implied that the customers had low willingness to pay, and a low willingness to pay implied that farmers would have a low willingness to invest in quality. Assume that there is a world market for green coffee and that the situation in this market can be summarized by Fig. 4.10.

The supply of green coffee is shown by the upward-sloping supply function $y(p)$, which is determined by the coffee farmers from the different growing regions. On that note, the downward-sloping function, $x(p)$, is the demand for green coffee, which is determined by the coffee roasters, who buy green coffee, roast and package it, and sell it directly to the consumer or to national retailers. Assume that these supply and demand functions reflect the situation in an average year with average harvests. The equilibrium in this market is given by the intersection of the supply and demand curves, which implies a market price of $p^{}$ and a trade volume of $x^{}$.
Now, examine the effects of adverse weather conditions in a country, like Brazil, that is responsible for about one third of the world supply of green coffee. These weather conditions reduce the crop by a substantial amount compared to an average year. The effect of this reduction in supply is illustrated in Fig. 4.11: the world supply function for green coffee shifts leftward, because the quantity available at any given price is now smaller than in an average year. The demand function is unaffected by this change, because it is mainly determined by the demand function of the final customers, which leverages onto the demand function of the roasters.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Normative Properties of Competitive Markets

The definition of Pareto efficiency is very general and relies on a concept of individual well-being that this textbook has not formally introduced so far. While motivating individual and market demand, Chap. 4 made a vague point that it has something to do with individual preferences that we will formally introduce in Chap. 7. In order to see if one can say anything about the efficiency of equilibria on competitive markets, one has to derive a proximate measure for efficiency. Fortunately, this can be done.

In order to see how to do this, it makes sense to focus on a special example of a market, a market for some good in which the demand of a single customer is typically either zero or one, like refrigerators. The analysis is completely general, though, and extends to all products. Figure $5.1$ shows the demand function on the market for fridges.

Each point along the demand function can be associated with a specific individual in society and the individuals are ranked according to their willingness to pay for a fridge. This interpretation allows for a very powerful interpretation of the points along the demand function: they give us the customers’ maximum willingness to pay. Look at the individual who is “behind” the first unit of the good. The marketdemand function at this point signals a willingness to pay that is equal to $\mathrm{CHF} 2000$. How does one know? By analyzing the response of this customer to different prices. If the market price is below CHF 2000 , the customer is willing to buy, if it is above, she prefers to not buy. Thus, CHF 2000 is the critical price of the good where the customer is indifferent between buying and not buying, hence it is her willingness to pay.

Assume that the price of the good is equal to CHF 1200. In that case, the customer will buy one unit of the product. Is it possible to infer anything about the customer’s increase in well-being? Under a certain condition that will have to be scrutinized below, yes, because her willingness to pay would have been CHF 2000 and she pays only CHF 1200 , so a monetary measure for her increase in wellbeing is CHF 2000 – CHF $1200=$ CHF 800 . The same logic can be applied to all customers, whose willingness to pay exceeds the market price. (All other customers are neither better nor worse off, because they do not buy the good.) Therefore, the aggregate monetary surplus is given by the added differences between one’s maximum willingness to pay and one’s actual payment. It is equal to the triangular area $\mathrm{ABC}$ in Fig. 5.1. This area is called the consumer surplus.

In order to define this measure formally, one has to make use of the concept of an inverse function. Remember that a function, $f$, is a mapping from one set $A$ to some other set $B$ that links elements from $A$ with elements from $B$, so $f: A \rightarrow B$. Assume that the mapping is one-to-one such that, for every element $a$ in $A$ there is exactly one element $b$ in $B$ that is connected with the element in $A$ by $f, b=f(a)$ and vice versa. The function, $f$, answers the question as to which elements in $B$ are associated with the elements in $A$. One can also ask the opposite question: take an arbitrary element of $B$; which element of $A$ is associated with it? Given that the mapping is on-to-one, the answer is given by the inverse function that is usually denoted by $f^{-1}$ and which is a mapping from $B$ to $A$.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|ECON 2506

微观经济学代考

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Equilibrium

你有没有想过,你去城里,面包师怎么可能知道你会买一个百吉饼?当你进入他的商店时,百吉饼就在那里,准备好让你买吃。怎么来的?即使您从未提前订购百吉饼,面包师怎么会知道?如果这个例子看起来有点平淡无奇,委婉地说,那么你最好三思而后行。市场机制的伟大奇迹在于,数以亿计的人在以一种明显不协调、分散的方式进行决策,尽管如此,市场结果还是有很大的秩序。这怎么可能?

嗯,第一个提示是,决策当然不是不协调的。它们由市场价格协调,形成个人买卖(以及更普遍地采取行动)的动机,因此市场经济中的决策是分散的,但并非不协调。那么问题就变成了:价格在多大程度上能够协调个人行为,这对市场运作意味着什么?

经济学家非常重视均衡的概念。为了激发一个正式的定义,请看以下示例:假设在给定的市场价格下,需求超过供应,即客户想要购买的东西比供应商愿意出售的要多。像这样的情况有一种内在的紧张,因为一些客户不得不回家不满意:经济主体的分散计划相互不一致。(在供给过剩的相反情况下,人们会得出相同的结论。)因此,所有经济主体的计划都兼容的唯一情况是在供给等于需求的价格下。这种情况称为平衡。它可以定义为整个经济体n不同的商品和相关的市场(一般均衡),或者对于单一的商品市场一世,将经济的其他部分排除在外(部分均衡)。为简单起见,并且对结果没有意义,假设所有客户都有相同的预算,b.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Equilibrium Analysis

正如有人所说,布丁的证据在于吃,所以下一步是看看完全竞争模型对更好地了解经济有多大用处。供需双方最重要的静态比较练习已经涵盖。这一小节现在将把它们放在一起,展示如何利用它们来培养人们对外部冲击或经济政策影响的直觉。下面的案例研究旨在让人们了解如何通过模型分析经济问题。目的不是要开发完整的图片,这将是一项非常艰巨的任务。即使是非常简单的供需模型,也能帮助人们理解复杂的社会现象。

案例研究:巴西的恶劣天气如何影响瑞士咖啡市场 咖啡是全球重要的农产品,巴西是世界上最大的咖啡生产国。在所谓的第二次和第三次咖啡文化浪潮之前的日子里,咖啡本质上是一种质量适中、价格低廉的商品。低质量意味着客户的支付意愿低,支付意愿低意味着农民对质量的投资意愿低。假设有一个生咖啡的世界市场,这个市场的情况可以用图 4.10 来概括。

生咖啡的供给由向上倾斜的供给函数表示是(p),这是由来自不同种植区的咖啡农决定的。在那一点上,向下倾斜的函数,X(p), 是对生咖啡的需求,由咖啡烘焙商决定,他们购买生咖啡、烘焙和包装,然后直接出售给消费者或全国零售商。假设这些供求函数反映了平均收成的平均年份的情况。这个市场的均衡由供给曲线和需求曲线的交点给出,这意味着市场价格为 $p^{ }一个nd一个吨r一个d和在○l在米和○Fx^{ }$。
现在,我们来看看巴西这样一个占世界生咖啡供应量约三分之一的国家的恶劣天气条件的影响。与平均年份相比,这些天气条件大大减少了作物的产量。这种供应减少的影响如图 4.11 所示:生咖啡的世界供应函数向左移动,因为在任何给定价格下可用的数量现在都小于平均年份。需求函数不受这种变化的影响,因为它主要由最终客户的需求函数决定,它利用了烘焙商的需求函数。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Normative Properties of Competitive Markets

帕累托效率的定义非常笼统,它依赖于个人幸福的概念,这本教科书迄今尚未正式引入。在激发个人和市场需求的同时,Chap。第 4 章模糊地指出它与个人偏好有关,我们将在第 1 章正式介绍。7. 为了看看是否可以对竞争市场上的均衡效率发表任何看法,必须推导出效率的近似度量。幸运的是,这是可以做到的。

为了了解如何做到这一点,有必要关注一个特殊的市场示例,即单个客户的需求通常为零或一的某种商品的市场,例如冰箱。不过,该分析是完全一般性的,并扩展到所有产品。数字5.1显示了冰箱市场上的需求函数。

需求函数中的每个点都可以与社会中的特定个体相关联,并且这些个体根据他们购买冰箱的意愿进行排名。这种解释允许对需求函数中的点进行非常有力的解释:它们为我们提供了客户最大的支付意愿。看看那些“落后”于商品第一单元的个人。此时的市场需求函数表明支付意愿等于CHF2000. 一个人怎么知道?通过分析该客户对不同价格的反应。如果市场价格低于2000瑞士法郎,客户愿意购买,如果高于,她宁愿不购买。因此,2000 瑞士法郎是商品的关键价格,顾客在购买和不购买之间无动于衷,因此是她的支付意愿。

假设商品的价格等于 1200 瑞士法郎。在这种情况下,客户将购买一单位的产品。是否有可能推断出客户幸福感的增加?在必须在下面仔细检查的特定条件下,是的,因为她的支付意愿是 2000 瑞士法郎,而她只支付 1200 瑞士法郎,因此她增加幸福感的货币衡量标准是 2000 瑞士法郎 – 瑞士法郎1200=800 瑞士法郎。相同的逻辑适用于所有支付意愿超过市场价格的客户。(所有其他顾客的情况既不好也不坏,因为他们不购买商品。)因此,总货币盈余是由一个人的最大支付意愿和一个人的实际支付之间的附加差值给出的。等于三角形面积一个乙C在图 5.1 中。这个区域称为消费者剩余。

为了正式定义这种度量,必须利用反函数的概念。记住一个函数,F, 是一个集合的映射一个到其他集合乙将元素从一个元素来自乙, 所以F:一个→乙. 假设映射是一对一的,这样,对于每个元素一个在一个只有一个元素b在乙与元素相关的一个经过F,b=F(一个)反之亦然。功能,F, 回答了哪些元素在乙与中的元素相关联一个. 也可以问相反的问题:取任意元素乙; 哪个元素一个与它有关吗?鉴于映射是一对一的,答案由通常表示为的反函数给出F−1这是一个映射乙至.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考 请认准statistics-lab™

统计代写请认准statistics-lab™. statistics-lab™为您的留学生涯保驾护航。

金融工程代写

金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题,以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。

非参数统计代写

非参数统计指的是一种统计方法,其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型;这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。

广义线性模型代考

广义线性模型(GLM)归属统计学领域,是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。

术语 广义线性模型(GLM)通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归,以及方差分析和方差分析(仅含固定效应)。

有限元方法代写

有限元方法(FEM)是一种流行的方法,用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。

有限元是一种通用的数值方法,用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程(即一些边界值问题)。为了解决一个问题,有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分,称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的,它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的:用于求解的数值域,它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统,以模拟整个问题。然后,有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构,多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务,包括但不限于Essay代写,Assignment代写,Dissertation代写,Report代写,小组作业代写,Proposal代写,Paper代写,Presentation代写,计算机作业代写,论文修改和润色,网课代做,exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中,本科,研究生等海外留学全阶段,辐射金融,经济学,会计学,审计学,管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者,也有海外名校硕博留学生,每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力,专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创,100%专业,100%准时,100%满意。

随机分析代写


随机微积分是数学的一个分支,对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。

时间序列分析代写

随机过程,是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体,参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现,其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值(如1秒,5分钟,12小时,7天,1年),因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中,往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录,以得到其自身发展的规律。

回归分析代写

多元回归分析渐进(Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics)属于计量经济学领域,主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法,可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系,在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中,其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括:数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发,包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统,其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题,尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题,而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问,这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展,得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中,它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域,MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要,工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数(M 文件)的综合集合,可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

R语言代写问卷设计与分析代写
PYTHON代写回归分析与线性模型代写
MATLAB代写方差分析与试验设计代写
STATA代写机器学习/统计学习代写
SPSS代写计量经济学代写
EVIEWS代写时间序列分析代写
EXCEL代写深度学习代写
SQL代写各种数据建模与可视化代写

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考| General Remarks

如果你也在 怎样代写微观经济学Microeconomics这个学科遇到相关的难题,请随时右上角联系我们的24/7代写客服。

微观经济学是主流经济学的一个分支,研究个人和企业在做出有关稀缺资源分配的决策时的行为以及这些个人和企业之间的相互作用。

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写微观经济学Microeconomics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写微观经济学Microeconomics代写方面经验极为丰富,各种代写微观经济学Microeconomics相关的作业也就用不着说。

我们提供的微观经济学Microeconomics及其相关学科的代写,服务范围广, 其中包括但不限于:

  • Statistical Inference 统计推断
  • Statistical Computing 统计计算
  • Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
  • Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
  • (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
  • Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
  • Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
  • Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考| General Remarks

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|General Remarks

The chapter on the theory of comparative advantage has revealed that the problem of scarcity can be alleviated, if individuals are willing to specialize according to their comparative advantages and then find a way to allocate goods and services that is mutually beneficial. I have further argued that this process cannot be expected to unfold without an adequate institutional “frame” within which specialization and exchange can take place. A market is one such institution; it is the most important institution that fosters specialization and exchange and is the foundation on which modern capitalist societies are built. Informally speaking, a market is a framework that allows potential buyers and sellers to exchange goods, services, and information.

In order to make these transactions possible, a market relies on private property rights and contract law. Property rights define individual spheres of control over objects and they allow individuals to determine in which ways these objects shall be used and thus create a distinction between “mine” and “yours.” Without such a distinction, it would be impossible to establish markets and trade, because it would be unclear who has the right to control and use these objects. Property rights can be absolute, giving the owner of an object the freedom to use it in any way he/she wants, but in most societies there are socially agreed-upon restrictions on the use of one’s property. Restrictions may occur, if some uses impede on the well-being of others or are in conflict with moral values.

An important example of objects for which many countries have constrained the rights of the owner is the ownership of land, which is called real estate or immovable property. Land development, types of uses and the architecture of buildings are subject to constraints and regulations, and some countries limit individual rights even further by preventing them from using real estate in the way most preferred by the owner (for example, by construing the right to abandon one’s buildings). Therefore, it is more adequate to think of property rights as those user rights that society leaves to the formal owner. The technical term for these rights is residual control rights.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Taxonomy of Markets

The remainder of this book will take the existence of property rights and contract law as given and develop a taxonomy of different markets. Table $3.1$ gives an overview of the most important market structures. It is common to distinguish supply and demand according to the number of buyers and sellers on a market. It is also customary to distinguish between one buyer or seller, a few buyers or sellers, and many buyers or sellers. This taxonomy defines nine prototypical market structures, each one with its own distinctive, functional logic. First of all, one should focus on the three market structures that will be analyzed in greater detail in the following chapters: polypoly, oligopoly, and monopoly.

A polypoly has many buyers and sellers of a homogenous good or service. Goods or services from different suppliers are called homogenous, if the potential buyers are not willing or able to distinguish between them and, therefore, consider them as perfectly interchangeable. The term “many” has a specific meaning in this context, as well. It refers to a situation where each buyer or seller considers his/her influence in the market so negligible that he/she does not have any influence on the market price. The buyers and sellers are therefore price takers, and the market is also called perfectly competitive. A market with perfect competition is the workhorse model for a lot of problems analyzed by economists, ranging from the determination of market prices to the effects of taxes and to the determinants of international trade. In addition, this market is relatively easy to analyze, which is why our analysis of market economies starts with this case. Examples for markets that approximate perfect competition are:

  • Some agrarian resources, like wheat, approximate perfect competition, because an international commodities market exists for these approximately homogenous resources, which implies a large number of producers (farmers) and buyers.
  • The stock exchange is, in principle, also a good example for a competitive market, but one has to be cautious, because of institutional investors who can, generally, influence prices.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Determinants of Supply and Demand

In order to be able to create these theories, one has to distinguish between the demand of a single individual (one’s demand of apricots) and market demand (the demand of all individuals, who buy apricots in Switzerland). On that note, one also has to distinguish between the supply of a single firm (the supply of apricots in one’s local grocery store) and market supply (the supply of all firms selling apricots in Switzerland).

Given that this chapter is a primer in competitive markets, it will motivate supply and demand heuristically by means of plausibility considerations. A fullsized microeconomic theory of markets replaces these plausibility considerations by a decision-theoretic foundation, which traditionally assumes that individuals can rank alternatives according to their preferences and determine demand and supply by choosing the most highly ranked alternative available. This kind of decisiontheoretic foundation of supply and demand is, from a scientific point of view, preferable. However, it comes at the cost of added complexity, so it makes sense to skip it during our first passage through the logic of competitive markets. We will develop the underlying decision theory in Chaps. 7,8 and 10 and 11 .

Demand One can start this endeavor with the analysis a single customer’s demand for a given good. Assume that there are $n$ goods in total among which a customer, $j$, can choose. $n$ is a natural number larger than 1 , and the goods are numbered $1,2, \ldots, n$

  • It is reasonable to assume that the quantity of the good $i$ (kilos of apricots), $x_{i}^{j}$, demanded by customer $j$ most likely depends on the price of the good, $p_{i}$ (CHF per kilo), as well as on the prices of other goods $p_{1}, p_{2}, \ldots, p_{i-1}, p_{i+1}, \ldots, p_{n}$ (for example, the price for a kilo of pears, as well as the price for a kilo of bread).
  • In addition to prices, other factors will also likely influence demand. A prominent candidate is the customer’s income or wealth, $b^{j}$ (for budget, which is the amount of money the customer can spend on purchases).
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考| General Remarks

微观经济学代考

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|General Remarks

比较优势理论一章表明,如果个人愿意根据自己的比较优势进行专业化,然后找到一种互惠互利的商品和服务配置方式,稀缺性问题就可以得到缓解。我进一步论证说,如果没有适当的制度“框架”,专业化和交流可以在其中发生,就不能期望这个过程会展开。市场就是这样一种机构;它是促进专业化和交流的最重要机构,是现代资本主义社会赖以建立的基础。通俗地说,市场是一个允许潜在买家和卖家交换商品、服务和信息的框架。

为了使这些交易成为可能,市场依赖于私有产权和合同法。财产权定义了个人对物品的控制范围,它们允许个人决定以何种方式使用这些物品,从而区分“我的”和“你的”。没有这样的区分,就不可能建立市场和贸易,因为谁有权控制​​和使用这些物品就不清楚了。财产权可以是绝对的,赋予物品的所有者以他/她想要的任何方式使用它的自由,但在大多数社会中,对个人财产的使用存在社会认可的限制。如果某些用途妨碍他人的福祉或与道德价值观相冲突,则可能会受到限制。

许多国家限制所有者权利的对象的一个​​重要例子是土地所有权,称为房地产或不动产。土地开放弃自己的建筑物)。因此,将财产权视为社会留给正式所有者的使用权更为恰当。这些权利的技术术语是剩余控制权。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Taxonomy of Markets

本书的其余部分将以财产权和合同法的存在为前提,并对不同市场进行分类。桌子3.1概述了最重要的市场结构。根据市场上买卖双方的数量来区分供需是很常见的。区分一个买家或卖家、少数买家或卖家以及许多买家或卖家也是习惯性的。这个分类定义了九种典型的市场结构,每一种都有自己独特的功能逻辑。首先,我们应该关注三种市场结构,这将在接下来的章节中更详细地分析:多头垄断、寡头垄断和垄断。

多头垄断有许多同质商品或服务的买家和卖家。来自不同供应商的商品或服务被称为同质,如果潜在购买者不愿意或不能区分它们,因此认为它们是完全可互换的。在这种情况下,术语“许多”也具有特定含义。它指的是每个买方或卖方都认为他/她对市场的影响微不足道,以至于他/她对市场价格没有任何影响。因此买卖双方都是价格接受者,市场也称为完全竞争市场。完全竞争的市场是经济学家分析的许多问题的主力模型,从市场价格的确定到税收的影响,再到国际贸易的决定因素。此外,这个市场比较容易分析,这也是我们对市场经济的分析从这个案例开始的原因。近似完全竞争的市场示例如下:

  • 一些农业资源,如小麦,近似完全竞争,因为这些近似同质的资源存在一个国际商品市场,这意味着大量的生产者(农民)和购买者。
  • 原则上,证券交易所也是竞争市场的一个很好的例子,但必须谨慎,因为机构投资者通常可以影响价格。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Determinants of Supply and Demand

为了能够创建这些理论,必须区分单个个人的需求(个人对杏子的需求)和市场需求(在瑞士购买杏子的所有个人的需求)。在这一点上,还必须区分单个公司的供应(当地杂货店的杏子供应)和市场供应(在瑞士销售杏子的所有公司的供应)。

鉴于本章是竞争市场的入门读物,它将通过合理性考虑启发式地激发供需。一个完整的市场微观经济学理论用决策理论基础取代了这些合理性考虑,传统上假设个人可以根据自己的偏好对替代品进行排名,并通过选择排名最高的可用替代品来确定需求和供应。这种供求关系的决策理论基础,从科学的角度看是可取的。然而,它是以增加复杂性为代价的,所以在我们第一次通过竞争市场的逻辑时跳过它是有意义的。我们将在章节中发展基本的决策理论。7,8 和 10 和 11 。

需求一可以从分析单个客户对给定商品的需求开始这一努力。假设有n商品总数,其中一个客户,j, 可选。n是大于 1 的自然数,商品有编号1,2,…,n

  • 假设商品的数量是合理的一世(公斤杏子),X一世j, 客户要求j很可能取决于商品的价格,p一世(每公斤瑞士法郎),以及其他商品的价格p1,p2,…,p一世−1,p一世+1,…,pn(例如,一公斤梨的价格,以及一公斤面包的价格)。
  • 除了价格,其他因素也可能影响需求。一个突出的候选人是客户的收入或财富,bj(对于预算,这是客户可以花在购买上的金额)。
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考 请认准statistics-lab™

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金融工程代写

金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题,以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。

非参数统计代写

非参数统计指的是一种统计方法,其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型;这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。

广义线性模型代考

广义线性模型(GLM)归属统计学领域,是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。

术语 广义线性模型(GLM)通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归,以及方差分析和方差分析(仅含固定效应)。

有限元方法代写

有限元方法(FEM)是一种流行的方法,用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。

有限元是一种通用的数值方法,用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程(即一些边界值问题)。为了解决一个问题,有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分,称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的,它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的:用于求解的数值域,它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统,以模拟整个问题。然后,有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构,多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务,包括但不限于Essay代写,Assignment代写,Dissertation代写,Report代写,小组作业代写,Proposal代写,Paper代写,Presentation代写,计算机作业代写,论文修改和润色,网课代做,exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中,本科,研究生等海外留学全阶段,辐射金融,经济学,会计学,审计学,管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者,也有海外名校硕博留学生,每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力,专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创,100%专业,100%准时,100%满意。

随机分析代写


随机微积分是数学的一个分支,对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。

时间序列分析代写

随机过程,是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体,参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现,其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值(如1秒,5分钟,12小时,7天,1年),因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中,往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录,以得到其自身发展的规律。

回归分析代写

多元回归分析渐进(Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics)属于计量经济学领域,主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法,可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系,在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中,其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括:数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发,包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统,其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题,尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题,而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问,这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展,得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中,它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域,MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要,工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数(M 文件)的综合集合,可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

R语言代写问卷设计与分析代写
PYTHON代写回归分析与线性模型代写
MATLAB代写方差分析与试验设计代写
STATA代写机器学习/统计学习代写
SPSS代写计量经济学代写
EVIEWS代写时间序列分析代写
EXCEL代写深度学习代写
SQL代写各种数据建模与可视化代写

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Gains from Trade

如果你也在 怎样代写微观经济学Microeconomics这个学科遇到相关的难题,请随时右上角联系我们的24/7代写客服。

微观经济学是主流经济学的一个分支,研究个人和企业在做出有关稀缺资源分配的决策时的行为以及这些个人和企业之间的相互作用。

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写微观经济学Microeconomics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写微观经济学Microeconomics代写方面经验极为丰富,各种代写微观经济学Microeconomics相关的作业也就用不着说。

我们提供的微观经济学Microeconomics及其相关学科的代写,服务范围广, 其中包括但不限于:

  • Statistical Inference 统计推断
  • Statistical Computing 统计计算
  • Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
  • Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
  • (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
  • Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
  • Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
  • Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Gains from Trade

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Schools of Economic Thought

The majority of the theories discussed in this book stem from two different schools of thought: neoclassical economics and new institutional economics. Despite the fact that neoclassical economics is the mainstream school of thought and taught at most universities around the world, the underlying paradigm is far from uncontroversial. The purpose of this subchapter is, therefore, to give a short overview over these, as well as other schools of thought, to better understand the paradigms and to put them into perspective.

Neoclassical economics is not a monolithic theory with undisputed first principles. Despite its heterogeneity and versatility, some underlying unifying principles can be identified: (1) methodological and normative individualism, (2) consequentialism (and, more specifically, welfarism, an ethical theory that we will discuss in Chap. 5), (3) rational or rationality-seeking agents, and (4) society as a network of mutual transactions that follow the logic of opportunity costs. These basal axioms are enriched by other more specific assumptions. Neoclassical economics is especially dominant in microeconomics, but it also developed into macroeconomics where, together with Keynesian economics, it forms the so-called neoclassical synthesis. Keynesianism was initially a fundamental critique of some of the implications of neoclassical thinking (like the neutrality of money) but was later integrated into the neoclassical theory (at the price of changing Keynes’ initial theory beyond recognition, as some Keynesians would stress).

As the name suggests, neoclassical economics emerged from classical economics, which is also called political economy. The main differences between classical and neoclassical economics represented a shift in attention regarding the most relevant economic problems and in the underlying theory of value, that is, a concept of what is valuable and creates value in society.

Classical economics originated at a time when capitalism was gradually replacing feudalism and innovations were fueling the Industrial Revolution that was completely changing society. One of the most pressing problems, in such a period of change, was how society could be organized, if every individual seeks his or her own advantage. This is why the idea that free markets have the ability to regulate themselves was of such profound importance, because it expressed the belief that a decentralized society, built on the principles of self-interest, can work. Important proponents of this school of thought were Adam Smith, Jean-Baptiste Say, David Ricardo, Thomas Malthus, and John Stuart Mill.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|How General Is the Theory of Comparative Advantage

A peculiar feature of the above model is the linearity of the production-possibility frontier. In this case, comparative advantage is a well-defined global concept and the results are completely general: with the exception of the limiting case of equal opportunity costs, there is always a way to increase production by specialization. There may, however, also be cases where production possibilities are more accurately described by a strictly concave (outward-bending) frontier. Such a frontier is typical if the productivity of production gets lower, the more you produce, like for example mining when it gets more and more difficult to extract the resource over time. In this case, comparative advantage is no longer a global, but rather a local concept, and it depends on the autarky points along the production-possibility frontier. Production-possibility frontiers are concave, if productivity is decreasing in production. Figure $2.4$ illustrates such a situation and the possibility for the reversal of comparative advantages.

Points $X$ and $Y$ represent two possible autarky situations. The slopes of the frontiers are a measure for local opportunity costs. As one can see, $A$ has a comparative advantage in the production of $T$ in $X$ and a comparative advantage in the production of $P$ in $Y$. Beyond that, however, there is no difference from the model with constant opportunity costs: if opportunity costs in autarky differ, there is room for mutual improvement by specialization and trade.

If the frontier can be concave, it could also be convex (inward-bending). Such a frontier is typical if the productivity of production gets higher, the more you produce, like for example if you learn over time to be more effective (learning by doing). Production-possibility frontiers are convex, if productivity is increasing in production. Figure $2.5$ illustrates this case.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Do Assumptions Matter

If assumptions shall not be realistic, then maybe one can conclude that assumptions do not matter at all. This position has, in fact, been put forward by (Friedman, 1953 , p. 14), one of the most influential economists of his time. He proposed that “Truly important and significant hypotheses will be found to have ‘assumptions’ that are wildly inaccurate descriptive representations of reality, and, in general, the more significant the theory, the more unrealistic the assumptions (in this sense).”

There is some debate as to whether Friedman adheres to the extreme position that assumptions do not matter at all (called instrumentalism) or not but, for the sake of argument, consider this position and see where it leads. According to an instrumentalist’s view, one should judge a theory according to the validity and usefulness of the hypotheses, whereas the assumptions are irrelevant. Does this position make sense? Look at the following model.
Model 3
Assumption: Seatbelts reduce the likelihood of fatal accidents.
Hypothesis: Seatbelts reduce the likelihood of fatal accidents.
Model 3 looks like a pretty nonsensical waste of time and is an example of a circular argument, but why does one find it intuitively unconvincing? The hypothesis can be empirically tested and it has been confirmed by the data. Therefore, according to an instrumentalist’s view, a theory that is built on this model passes the test of usefulness. The idea that assumptions are completely irrelevant is, of course, flawed because it prevents one from learning anything about the causal mechanisms that drive the hypotheses, if one cannot rule out the trivial model where hypotheses and assumptions coincide. Even if one’s mind can never grasp the true causal mechanism, and thus one has to be satisfied with crude narratives and heuristics, declaring the assumptions irrelevant leaves one with only cookbooks.

Instrumentalism is an extreme position and there are reasons to assume that Friedman’s own position is more balanced. He argues that the role of a positive science “is the development of a ‘theory’ or ‘hypothesis’ that yields valid and meaningful (i.e., not truistic) predictions about phenomena not yet observed.” It can be argued that the term “truistic” refers to models of the above type that are only uninteresting tautologies. In the end, scientific theory building has a subjective component, because the balance between, on the one hand, meaningful simplifications of the assumptions and of the supposed causal mechanisms, and, on the other hand, the explanatory power of the hypotheses cannot be precisely nailed down. It is the art and craft of experienced scientists to see if a theory is “in balance” in this sense.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Gains from Trade

微观经济学代考

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Schools of Economic Thought

本书中讨论的大部分理论源于两种不同的思想流派:新古典经济学和新制度经济学。尽管新古典经济学是世界上大多数大学的主流思想流派,但其基本范式远非没有争议。因此,本小节的目的是对这些以及其他思想流派进行简要概述,以更好地理解范式并将它们置于正确的角度。

新古典经济学不是一个具有无可争议的首要原则的单一理论。尽管存在异质性和多功能性,但可以确定一些潜在的统一原则:(1)方法论和规范的个人主义,(2)后果主义(更具体地说,福利主义,我们将在第 5 章讨论的伦理理论),(3)理性或寻求理性的代理人,以及(4)社会是一个遵循机会成本逻辑的相互交易网络。其他更具体的假设丰富了这些基本公理。新古典经济学在微观经济学中尤其占主导地位,但它也发展为宏观经济学,与凯恩斯经济学一起形成了所谓的新古典综合。

顾名思义,新古典经济学起源于古典经济学,也称为政治经济学。古典经济学和新古典经济学之间的主要区别代表了对最相关的经济问题和基本价值理论的关注转移,即价值的概念和在社会中创造价值的概念。

古典经济学起源于资本主义逐渐取代封建主义,创新推动工业革命彻底改变社会的时代。在这样一个变革时期,最紧迫的问题之一是如何组织社会,如果每个人都寻求自己的优势。这就是为什么自由市场具有自我调节能力的想法如此重要的原因,因为它表达了一种信念,即建立在自利原则之上的去中心化社会可以运作。这一学派的重要支持者是亚当·斯密、让-巴蒂斯特·赛伊、大卫·李嘉图、托马斯·马尔萨斯和约翰·斯图尔特·米尔。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|How General Is the Theory of Comparative Advantage

上述模型的一个特点是生产可能性边界的线性。在这种情况下,比较优势是一个定义明确的全球概念,其结果是完全一般的:除了机会成本相等的极限情况外,总有一种方法可以通过专业化来增加产量。然而,在某些情况下,生产可能性可以通过严格的凹(向外弯曲)边界更准确地描述。如果生产的生产率越低,生产的越多,例如采矿,随着时间的推移,开采资源变得越来越困难,这种边界就是典型的。在这种情况下,比较优势不再是一个全球性的概念,而是一个局部性的概念,它取决于生产可能性边界沿线的自给自足点。如果生产中的生产率正在下降,则生产可能性边界是凹的。数字2.4说明了这种情况和比较优势逆转的可能性。

积分X和是代表两种可能的自给自足情况。边界的斜率是衡量当地机会成本的指标。可以看出,一个在生产上具有比较优势吨在X并且在生产上具有比较优势磷在是. 然而,除此之外,与具有恒定机会成本的模型没有区别:如果自给自足的机会成本不同,则存在通过专业化和贸易相互改进的空间。

如果边界可以是凹的,它也可以是凸的(向内弯曲)。如果生产效率越高,您生产的越多,例如,如果您随着时间的推移学习变得更有效(边做边学),那么这种边界是典型的。如果生产中的生产率在提高,则生产可能性边界是凸的。数字2.5说明了这种情况。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Do Assumptions Matter

如果假设不现实,那么也许可以得出结论,假设根本不重要。事实上,这一立场是由当时最有影响力的经济学家之一(弗里德曼,1953 年,第 14 页)提出的。他提出“将发现真正重要和重要的假设具有非常不准确的对现实的描述性表示的’假设’,并且一般来说,理论越重要,假设(在这个意义上)就越不现实。”

关于弗里德曼是否坚持假设根本不重要的极端立场(称为工具主义)存在一些争论,但为了争论,考虑一下这个立场并看看它会导致什么。根据工具主义者的观点,人们应该根据假设的有效性和有用性来判断一个理论,而假设是无关紧要的。这个位置有意义吗?看看下面的模型。
模型 3
假设:安全带可降低致命事故的可能性。
假设:安全带降低了致命事故的可能性。
Model 3 看起来是一种非常荒谬的浪费时间,是循环论证的一个例子,但为什么人们会觉得它在直觉上没有说服力呢?该假设可以通过经验检验,并已被数据证实。因此,根据工具主义者的观点,建立在这个模型上的理论通过了有用性的检验。当然,假设完全不相关的想法是有缺陷的,因为如果不能排除假设和假设重合的琐碎模型,它会阻止人们了解驱动假设的因果机制。即使一个人的头脑永远无法掌握真正的因果机制,因此必须满足于粗糙的叙述和启发式方法,但宣布这些假设无关紧要,只会留下食谱。

工具主义是一种极端立场,有理由假设弗里德曼自己的立场更加平衡。他认为,实证科学的作用是“发展一种‘理论’或‘假设’,从而对尚未观察到的现象做出有效且有意义的(即,非老生常谈的)预测。” 可以说,术语“自言自语”指的是上述类型的模型,它们只是无趣的重言式。最后,科学理论构建具有主观成分,因为一方面对假设和假设的因果机制进行有意义的简化,另一方面,假设的解释力不能精确地平衡。明确了。看一个理论在这个意义上是否“平衡”是经验丰富的科学家的艺术和技艺。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考 请认准statistics-lab™

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金融工程代写

金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题,以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。

非参数统计代写

非参数统计指的是一种统计方法,其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型;这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。

广义线性模型代考

广义线性模型(GLM)归属统计学领域,是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。

术语 广义线性模型(GLM)通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归,以及方差分析和方差分析(仅含固定效应)。

有限元方法代写

有限元方法(FEM)是一种流行的方法,用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。

有限元是一种通用的数值方法,用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程(即一些边界值问题)。为了解决一个问题,有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分,称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的,它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的:用于求解的数值域,它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统,以模拟整个问题。然后,有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。

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随机分析代写


随机微积分是数学的一个分支,对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。

时间序列分析代写

随机过程,是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体,参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现,其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值(如1秒,5分钟,12小时,7天,1年),因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中,往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录,以得到其自身发展的规律。

回归分析代写

多元回归分析渐进(Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics)属于计量经济学领域,主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法,可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系,在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中,其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括:数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发,包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统,其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题,尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题,而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问,这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展,得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中,它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域,MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要,工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数(M 文件)的综合集合,可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

R语言代写问卷设计与分析代写
PYTHON代写回归分析与线性模型代写
MATLAB代写方差分析与试验设计代写
STATA代写机器学习/统计学习代写
SPSS代写计量经济学代写
EVIEWS代写时间序列分析代写
EXCEL代写深度学习代写
SQL代写各种数据建模与可视化代写

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Theories and Models

如果你也在 怎样代写微观经济学Microeconomics这个学科遇到相关的难题,请随时右上角联系我们的24/7代写客服。

微观经济学是主流经济学的一个分支,研究个人和企业在做出有关稀缺资源分配的决策时的行为以及这些个人和企业之间的相互作用。

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写微观经济学Microeconomics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写微观经济学Microeconomics代写方面经验极为丰富,各种代写微观经济学Microeconomics相关的作业也就用不着说。

我们提供的微观经济学Microeconomics及其相关学科的代写,服务范围广, 其中包括但不限于:

  • Statistical Inference 统计推断
  • Statistical Computing 统计计算
  • Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
  • Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
  • (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
  • Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
  • Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
  • Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Theories and Models

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Theories and Models

In mainstream economics, at least, theories have models as their “logical backbones.” A model is a collection of assumptions and hypotheses that are linked by the rules of logic and mathematics. A model makes several assumptions about an aspect of reality and derives hypotheses from these assumptions in a logically consistent way. To understand the difference between theories and models, look at the following example.

Assume one wants to develop a theory about the functioning of the price mechanism on markets. In order to do so, one thinks about, for example, the way individuals sell and buy their stuff and how these buying and selling decisions explain the formation of prices. This structured way of thinking is one of the models underlying one’s theory.

The crucial function of a model, in the context of theory formation, is to make sure that the key causal mechanisms underlying a theory are made explicit and logically consistent. Look at the following model to understand why:
Model 1
Assumption 1: All human beings are in the streets.
Assumption 2: Peter is a human being.
Hypothesis: Peter is sitting at my home.
“Model 1 ” is a model because it has a set of assumptions and a hypothesis, but the hypothesis does not follow logically from the assumptions. In this case, the model is logically inconsistent, even though the hypothesis might be correct empirically (Peter is sitting right next to me). The point is that the assumptions cannot explain my observation, which makes the model useless for any theory. A consistent model is therefore a necessary condition for a good theory.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|The Virtue of Thriftiness

An important criterion for good models is simplicity, frugality, or thriftiness. The idea is often referred to as Ockham’s razor (named for an English Franciscan Friar in the fourteenth century), which states that, among competing models, the one with the fewest assumptions should be selected. However, this concept is much older. Aristotle $(2004)$, in his Posterior Analytics, stated that, “we may assume the superiority ceteris paribus [all things being equal] of the demonstration which derives from fewer postulates or hypotheses.” Ockham’s razor is widely accepted among economists. (Solow, 1997, p. 43) summarizes the self-image of the profession in a very concise way: “Today, if you ask a mainstream economist a question about almost any aspect of economic life, the response will be: suppose we model that situation and see what happens. [… ] A model is a deliberately simplified representation of a much more complicated situation. […] The idea is to focus on one or two causal or conditioning factors, exclude everything else, and hope to understand how just these aspects of reality work and interact.”

Ockham’s razor necessarily implies that the assumptions of a model should not be realistic in the naïve sense that the assumptions shall fit reality. Scientific theory building necessarily reduces complexity to make a situation comprehensible for the human mind. Robinson (1962) found a nice expression for the problems implied by models built on “realistic” assumptions: “[a] model which took account of all the variegation of reality would be of no more use than a map at the scale of one to one.” However, the epistemic problem goes even deeper, as illustrated by the novel Tristram Shandy by Sterne (2003). The book is the autobiography of the protagonist, which is so detailed that it takes the author 1 year to write down a single day of his life. From this perspective, the map is even more detailed than the territory and the level of detail one considers adequate must be based on a subjective value judgment.
Maps have to simplify in order to be useful. On the other hand, is there a “right” way to simplify? The answer to this question must also be “no,” because it depends on what one wants to do with the map. If one is driving a car, contour lines are not essential and may easily distract attention from other more important information. However, if one is planning to hike in the mountains, contour lines are crucial. Therefore, a good simplification depends on its purpose.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Do Assumptions Matter

If assumptions shall not be realistic, then maybe one can conclude that assumptions do not matter at all. This position has, in fact, been put forward by (Friedman, 1953 , p. 14), one of the most influential economists of his time. He proposed that “Truly important and significant hypotheses will be found to have ‘assumptions’ that are wildly inaccurate descriptive representations of reality, and, in general, the more significant the theory, the more unrealistic the assumptions (in this sense).”

There is some debate as to whether Friedman adheres to the extreme position that assumptions do not matter at all (called instrumentalism) or not but, for the sake of argument, consider this position and see where it leads. According to an instrumentalist’s view, one should judge a theory according to the validity and usefulness of the hypotheses, whereas the assumptions are irrelevant. Does this position make sense? Look at the following model.
Model 3
Assumption: Seatbelts reduce the likelihood of fatal accidents.
Hypothesis: Seatbelts reduce the likelihood of fatal accidents.
Model 3 looks like a pretty nonsensical waste of time and is an example of a circular argument, but why does one find it intuitively unconvincing? The hypothesis can be empirically tested and it has been confirmed by the data. Therefore, according to an instrumentalist’s view, a theory that is built on this model passes the test of usefulness. The idea that assumptions are completely irrelevant is, of course, flawed because it prevents one from learning anything about the causal mechanisms that drive the hypotheses, if one cannot rule out the trivial model where hypotheses and assumptions coincide. Even if one’s mind can never grasp the true causal mechanism, and thus one has to be satisfied with crude narratives and heuristics, declaring the assumptions irrelevant leaves one with only cookbooks.

Instrumentalism is an extreme position and there are reasons to assume that Friedman’s own position is more balanced. He argues that the role of a positive science “is the development of a ‘theory’ or ‘hypothesis’ that yields valid and meaningful (i.e., not truistic) predictions about phenomena not yet observed.” It can be argued that the term “truistic” refers to models of the above type that are only uninteresting tautologies. In the end, scientific theory building has a subjective component, because the balance between, on the one hand, meaningful simplifications of the assumptions and of the supposed causal mechanisms, and, on the other hand, the explanatory power of the hypotheses cannot be precisely nailed down. It is the art and craft of experienced scientists to see if a theory is “in balance” in this sense.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Theories and Models

微观经济学代考

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Theories and Models

至少在主流经济学中,理论有模型作为它们的“逻辑支柱”。模型是由逻辑和数学规则联系起来的假设和假设的集合。模型对现实的某个方面做出若干假设,并以逻辑一致的方式从这些假设中得出假设。要了解理论和模型之间的区别,请查看以下示例。

假设一个人想要发展一种关于价格机制在市场上的作用的理论。为了做到这一点,例如,人们要考虑个人买卖他们的东西的方式,以及这些买卖决定如何解释价格的形成。这种结构化的思维方式是一个人理论的基础模型之一。

在理论形成的背景下,模型的关键功能是确保理论背后的关键因果机制明确且逻辑一致。查看以下模型以了解原因:
模型 1
假设 1:所有人都在街头。
假设2:彼得是一个人。
假设:彼得坐在我家。
“模型1”是一个模型,因为它有一组假设和一个假设,但假设不是从假设逻辑上得出的。在这种情况下,模型在逻辑上是不一致的,即使假设在经验上可能是正确的(彼得坐在我旁边)。关键是这些假设无法解释我的观察结果,这使得该模型对任何理论都无用。因此,一个一致的模型是一个好的理论的必要条件。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|The Virtue of Thriftiness

优秀模型的一个重要标准是简单、节俭或节俭。这个想法通常被称为奥卡姆剃刀(以十四世纪英国方济各会修士的名字命名),它指出,在竞争模型中,应该选择假设最少的模型。但是,这个概念要古老得多。亚里士多德(2004),在他的后验分析中说,“我们可以假设证明的优势 ceteris paribus [all things are equal] 源于较少的假设或假设。” 奥卡姆剃刀在经济学家中被广泛接受。(Solow, 1997, p. 43) 以非常简洁的方式总结了这个行业的自我形象:“今天,如果你问一个主流经济学家一个关于经济生活几乎任何方面的问题,答案将是:假设我们建模这种情况,看看会发生什么。[…] 模型是对更复杂情况的刻意简化表示。[…] 这个想法是专注于一两个因果或条件因素,排除其他一切,并希望了解现实的这些方面是如何发挥作用和相互作用的。”

奥卡姆剃刀必然意味着模型的假设不应该是现实的,因为假设应该符合现实。建立科学理论必然会降低复杂性,以使情况变得易于理解。Robinson (1962) 为建立在“现实”假设上的模型所隐含的问题找到了一个很好的表达方式:“考虑到现实的所有变化的模型与一一。” 然而,正如 Sterne(2003 年)的小说 Tristram Shandy 所说明的那样,认知问题更加深入。这本书是主人公的自传,内容详尽,作者用了1年的时间才写下他的一天。从这个角度来看,
地图必须简化才能有用。另一方面,是否有一种“正确”的简化方式?这个问题的答案也必须是“否”,因为这取决于人们想用地图做什么。如果一个人正在开车,轮廓线不是必需的,并且可能很容易分散其他更重要信息的注意力。然而,如果一个人打算在山上徒步旅行,等高线是至关重要的。因此,一个好的简化取决于它的目的。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Do Assumptions Matter

如果假设不现实,那么也许可以得出结论,假设根本不重要。事实上,这一立场是由当时最有影响力的经济学家之一(弗里德曼,1953 年,第 14 页)提出的。他提出“将发现真正重要和重要的假设具有非常不准确的对现实的描述性表示的’假设’,并且一般来说,理论越重要,假设(在这个意义上)就越不现实。”

关于弗里德曼是否坚持假设根本不重要的极端立场(称为工具主义)存在一些争论,但为了争论,考虑一下这个立场并看看它会导致什么。根据工具主义者的观点,人们应该根据假设的有效性和有用性来判断一个理论,而假设是无关紧要的。这个位置有意义吗?看看下面的模型。
模型 3
假设:安全带可降低致命事故的可能性。
假设:安全带降低了致命事故的可能性。
Model 3 看起来是一种非常荒谬的浪费时间,是循环论证的一个例子,但为什么人们会觉得它在直觉上没有说服力呢?该假设可以通过经验检验,并已被数据证实。因此,根据工具主义者的观点,建立在这个模型上的理论通过了有用性的检验。当然,假设完全不相关的想法是有缺陷的,因为如果不能排除假设和假设重合的琐碎模型,它会阻止人们了解驱动假设的因果机制。即使一个人的头脑永远无法掌握真正的因果机制,因此必须满足于粗糙的叙述和启发式方法,但宣布这些假设无关紧要,只会留下食谱。

工具主义是一种极端立场,有理由假设弗里德曼自己的立场更加平衡。他认为,实证科学的作用是“发展一种‘理论’或‘假设’,从而对尚未观察到的现象做出有效且有意义的(即,非老生常谈的)预测。” 可以说,术语“自言自语”指的是上述类型的模型,它们只是无趣的重言式。最后,科学理论构建具有主观成分,因为一方面对假设和假设的因果机制进行有意义的简化,另一方面,假设的解释力不能精确地平衡。明确了。看一个理论在这个意义上是否“平衡”是经验丰富的科学家的艺术和技艺。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考 请认准statistics-lab™

统计代写请认准statistics-lab™. statistics-lab™为您的留学生涯保驾护航。

金融工程代写

金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题,以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。

非参数统计代写

非参数统计指的是一种统计方法,其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型;这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。

广义线性模型代考

广义线性模型(GLM)归属统计学领域,是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。

术语 广义线性模型(GLM)通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归,以及方差分析和方差分析(仅含固定效应)。

有限元方法代写

有限元方法(FEM)是一种流行的方法,用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。

有限元是一种通用的数值方法,用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程(即一些边界值问题)。为了解决一个问题,有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分,称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的,它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的:用于求解的数值域,它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统,以模拟整个问题。然后,有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构,多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务,包括但不限于Essay代写,Assignment代写,Dissertation代写,Report代写,小组作业代写,Proposal代写,Paper代写,Presentation代写,计算机作业代写,论文修改和润色,网课代做,exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中,本科,研究生等海外留学全阶段,辐射金融,经济学,会计学,审计学,管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者,也有海外名校硕博留学生,每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力,专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创,100%专业,100%准时,100%满意。

随机分析代写


随机微积分是数学的一个分支,对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。

时间序列分析代写

随机过程,是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体,参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现,其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值(如1秒,5分钟,12小时,7天,1年),因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中,往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录,以得到其自身发展的规律。

回归分析代写

多元回归分析渐进(Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics)属于计量经济学领域,主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法,可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系,在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中,其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括:数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发,包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统,其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题,尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题,而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问,这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展,得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中,它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域,MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要,工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数(M 文件)的综合集合,可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

R语言代写问卷设计与分析代写
PYTHON代写回归分析与线性模型代写
MATLAB代写方差分析与试验设计代写
STATA代写机器学习/统计学习代写
SPSS代写计量经济学代写
EVIEWS代写时间序列分析代写
EXCEL代写深度学习代写
SQL代写各种数据建模与可视化代写

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|First Principles

如果你也在 怎样代写微观经济学Microeconomics这个学科遇到相关的难题,请随时右上角联系我们的24/7代写客服。

微观经济学是主流经济学的一个分支,研究个人和企业在做出有关稀缺资源分配的决策时的行为以及这些个人和企业之间的相互作用。

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写微观经济学Microeconomics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写微观经济学Microeconomics代写方面经验极为丰富,各种代写微观经济学Microeconomics相关的作业也就用不着说。

我们提供的微观经济学Microeconomics及其相关学科的代写,服务范围广, 其中包括但不限于:

  • Statistical Inference 统计推断
  • Statistical Computing 统计计算
  • Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
  • Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
  • (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
  • Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
  • Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
  • Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|First Principles

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|What Is Economics About

Economics is the science that studies human behavior as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses.
(Lionel Robbins 1932)
The master-economist must possess a rare combination of gifts. He must reach a high standard in several different directions and must combine talents not often found together. He must be mathematician, historian, statesman, philosopher-in some degree. He must contemplate the particular in terms of the general, and touch abstract and concrete in the same flight of thought. He must study the present in the light of the past for the purposes of the future. No part of man’s nature or his institutions must lie entirely outside his regard. He must be purposeful and disinterested in a simultaneous mood; as aloof and incorruptible as an artist, yet sometimes as near the earth as a politician.
(John Maynard Keynes 1924)
If one looks at economics departments all over the world, one may be surprised to see what economists are doing. Of course, economists deal with “the economy,”but modern economics is extremely diverse and covers a wide range of fields, which few laymen would intuitively associate with economics. Here is a list of examples:

economists deal with the “big old” questions about the sources of growth and business cycles, poverty and the effects of unemployment, or the effects of monetary policy on the economy. More generally, they want to find out how markets allocate goods and resources and how markets have to be regulated in order to make sure that they function properly. An important field of research is the economic role of the government: the ways it can levy taxes and provide services. However, economists also deal with problems related to political institutions, like the effects of different voting systems, the causes and consequences of political and military conflicts, or the relationship between different levels of government. They are involved in evolutionary biology, the design of products on financial markets, auctions, and internet market platforms; they work with lawyers to understand the consequences of legal rules and cooperate with philosophers.

The reason for this diversity of fields stems from the evolution of the modern definition of the science of economics. Economics is not the science that studies “the economy”: it is not defined by an object of study. Instead, it defines itself by a particular perspective from which it tries to make sense of the social world: scarcity. Samuelson (1948), one of the most influential economists of the twentieth century, provided what is still the most concise definition of economics: “Economics is the study of how men and society choose, with or without the use of money, to employ scarce productive resources which could have alternative uses, to produce various commodities over time and distribute them for consumption, now and in the future among various people and groups of society.” This definition may not be as elegant as the one by Lionel Robbins, but it has the advantage of larger concreteness: economists try to understand how resources are used to alleviate scarcity. Economics is therefore a scientific method: economists start with the premise that it is possible to understand the logic of individual behavior and collective action as a result of scarcity. This is why the above list of examples covers such a broad array of fields. Whenever one has the conjecture that scarcity plays a role in the functioning of a situation, economists can be brought on board.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Some Methodological Remarks

There are cookbooks and scientific theories. In a cookbook, one learns that it takes a hot pan, eggs, flour, milk, baking soda, and a pinch of salt to make pancakes. If one follows the recipe, one ends up with a tasty meal, but one does not really understand why. A scientific theory tells one how heat changes the molecular structure of proteins present in egg white, how baking soda reacts with acids, and how gluten builds elastic networks. This knowledge may not inform one about how to make a pancake, but it can tell one a lot about the deeper reasons why the recipe works. Moreover, one can use this information to develop new innovative recipes. Both cookbooks and scientific theories complement each other: understanding the physical, chemical, and biological mechanisms underlying the transformation of ingredients into meals helps one improve recipes, and the evolved recipes are a source of inspiration for scientific discoveries.

Economics comes in the form of both cookbooks and scientific theories. A stockbroker may just “follow his/her gut” about profitable picks. He/she has no explicit theories about the functioning of capital markets in the back of his/her mind, which informs him/her about the future development of stocks. Like an experienced cook, he/she just “feels” or “sees” which stocks will be profitable. Scientific reasoning would require trying to understand the mechanisms that make one stock successful and the other a failure. Alternatively, take the manager of a firm as an example. When he/she sets up the organization of the firm and the compensation packages for the employees, he/she might follow custom and his/her intuition. The scientific approach to organization and compensation would be to develop theories about the consequences or organizational designs and the incentive effects of different ways to compensate employees. These theories might not be directly applicable to a specific problem, but, over time, they feed into the “culture” of a society and shape the intuitions of decision-makers. John Maynard Keynes made this point quite poignantly: “The ideas of economists and political philosophers, both when they are right and when they are wrong are more powerful than is commonly understood. Indeed, the world is ruled by little else. Practical men, who believe themselves to be quite exempt from any intellectual influences, are usually slaves of some defunct economist.”

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|True and Reasonable Theories

I used the term scientific theory in the last subchapter. For the purposes of this text, a theory is defined as a relatively broad conceptual approach that makes reasonable conjectures about causal relationships in the world.

When is a conjecture reasonable and why does one find the word “reasonable” instead of “true” in the above statement? Given the limitations of one’s sense organs and one’s mind, it is impossible to say that a conjecture is true in the sense that it is in total accordance with reality. A nice way to briefly grasp the epistemic problems that come with a naĩve idea of truth is a short elaboration of the so-called Münchhausen trilemma. The basic problem is that scientific reasoning requires that one is prepared to provide proof for any of one’s statements. However, such a proof can only be given by means of another statement, which must also be provable. The Münchhausen trilemma makes the point that one has the choice between exactly three unsatisfactory options to deal with this situation:

  • Infinite regress: Each proof requires a further proof, ad infinitum. This process will, of course, never end, such that one never “breaks through” to the truth. It is, understandably, impossible to give an example for an infinite regress.
  • Circularity: The statement and the proof support each other, maybe in a complex chain of arguments. An example is a flawed interpretation of the theory of evolution that defines the species that fits best in an environment as the one that survives, and then one argues that the species one observes must fit best into its environment.
  • Dogmatism: One finally reaches a stage in the process of statement and proof, where the underlying assumptions have no further justification. A wonderful example of dogmatism is the second sentence of the US Declaration of Independence, even if it is not a scientific theory: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.” (Franklin et al. 2015)

For all practical intents and purposes, only dogmatism is an option. That means that truth cannot be achieved by a process of scientific reasoning but necessarily relies on an intuition that must be nurtured by other sources. Dogmatism, for the same reason, also implies that every scientific theory must start from value judgments about the basic self-evident principles. Coming back to the discussion about theories, calling a conjecture reasonable bites the trilemma-bullet by requiring the much more moderate standard of being consensual. Wittgenstein (1972), 94 and 110 expressed this beautifully: “But I did not get my picture of the world by satisfying myself of its correctness; nor do I have it because I am satisfied of its correctness. No: it is the inherited background against which I distinguish between true and false. […] As if giving grounds did not come to an end sometime. But the end is not an ungrounded presupposition: it is an ungrounded way of acting.” In order to reach a consensus among experts, one must at least reach an agreement of the different dogmas that (perhaps subconsciously) taint one’s own perspective.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|First Principles

微观经济学代考

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|What Is Economics About

经济学是一门研究人类行为的科学,将人类行为视为目的和具有替代用途的稀缺手段之间的关系。
(莱昂内尔·罗宾斯 1932 年)
经济学家必须拥有罕见的天赋组合。他必须在几个不同的方向上达到高标准,并且必须结合不常见的人才。他一定是数学家、历史学家、政治家、哲学家——在某种程度上。他必须从普遍的角度来思考特殊,并在同一思绪中触及抽象和具体。为了未来,他必须根据过去研究现在。人的天性或制度的任何部分都不得完全不在他的考虑范围之内。他必须是有目的的,对同时的情绪不感兴趣;像艺术家一样冷漠和廉洁,但有时像政治家一样接近地球。
(约翰梅纳德凯恩斯 1924 年)
如果你看看世界各地的经济学系,你可能会惊讶地发现经济学家在做什么。当然,经济学家处理的是“经济”,但现代经济学极其多样化,涵盖的领域非常广泛,很少有外行人会直观地将其与经济学联系起来。以下是示例列表:

经济学家处理关于增长和商业周期的来源、贫困和失业的影响或货币政策对经济的影响等“大老问题”。更一般地说,他们想了解市场如何分配商品和资源,以及必须如何监管市场以确保它们正常运作。一个重要的研究领域是政府的经济角色:它可以征税和提供服务的方式。然而,经济学家也处理与政治制度相关的问题,例如不同投票制度的影响、政治和军事冲突的原因和后果,或不同级别政府之间的关系。他们涉及进化生物学、金融市场产品设计、拍卖和互联网市场平台;

这种领域多样性的原因源于现代经济学定义的演变。经济学不是研究“经济”的科学:它不是由研究对象定义的。相反,它通过一个特定的视角来定义自己,并试图从这个视角理解社会世界:稀缺性。萨缪尔森 (Samuelson, 1948) 是 20 世纪最有影响力的经济学家之一,他提供了至今仍是最简洁的经济学定义:“经济学是研究人和社会如何选择使用或不使用货币来雇佣稀缺的可以有替代用途的生产资源,随着时间的推移生产各种商品,并将它们分配给现在和将来在不同的人和社会群体中消费。” 这个定义可能不像莱昂内尔·罗宾斯的定义那么优雅,但它具有更具体的优势:经济学家试图了解如何使用资源来缓解稀缺性。因此,经济学是一种科学方法:经济学家的出发点是,可以理解由于稀缺而导致的个人行为和集体行动的逻辑。这就是为什么上面的示例列表涵盖了如此广泛的领域。每当有人猜测稀缺性在某种情况的运作中发挥作用时,经济学家就可以参与进来。这就是为什么上面的示例列表涵盖了如此广泛的领域。每当有人猜测稀缺性在某种情况的运作中发挥作用时,经济学家就可以参与进来。这就是为什么上面的示例列表涵盖了如此广泛的领域。每当有人猜测稀缺性在某种情况的运作中发挥作用时,经济学家就可以参与进来。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Some Methodological Remarks

有食谱和科学理论。在一本食谱中,人们了解到制作煎饼需要一个热锅、鸡蛋、面粉、牛奶、小苏打和一小撮盐。如果一个人遵循食谱,一个人最终会得到一顿美味的饭菜,但一个人并不真正理解为什么。一种科学理论告诉人们热量如何改变蛋清中蛋白质的分子结构,小苏打如何与酸反应,以及面筋如何建立弹性网络。这些知识可能不会告诉人们如何制作煎饼,但它可以告诉人们很多关于食谱有效的更深层次的原因。此外,人们可以使用这些信息来开发新的创新配方。食谱和科学理论相辅相成:理解物理、化学、

经济学以食谱和科学理论的形式出现。股票经纪人可能只是“跟随他/她的直觉”选择有利可图的选择。他/她在他/她的脑海中没有关于资本市场运作的明确理论,这让他/她了解股票的未来发展。就像经验丰富的厨师一样,他/她只是“感觉”或“看到”哪些股票会盈利。科学推理需要尝试理解使一只股票成功而另一只股票失败的机制。或者,以一家公司的经理为例。当他/她设置公司的组织和员工的薪酬方案时,他/她可能会遵循习惯和他/她的直觉。组织和薪酬的科学方法将是发展关于后果或组织设计以及不同方式补偿员工的激励效果的理论。这些理论可能并不直接适用于特定问题,但随着时间的推移,它们会融入社会的“文化”并塑造决策者的直觉。约翰·梅纳德·凯恩斯 (John Maynard Keynes) 非常尖锐地指出了这一点:“经济学家和政治哲学家的思想,无论是正确的还是错误的,都比通常所理解的更强大。事实上,世界几乎没有其他人统治。务实的人,他们认为自己完全不受任何知识分子的影响,通常是某个已故经济学家的奴隶。” 这些理论可能并不直接适用于特定问题,但随着时间的推移,它们会融入社会的“文化”并塑造决策者的直觉。约翰·梅纳德·凯恩斯 (John Maynard Keynes) 非常尖锐地指出了这一点:“经济学家和政治哲学家的思想,无论是正确的还是错误的,都比通常所理解的更强大。事实上,世界几乎没有其他人统治。务实的人,他们认为自己完全不受任何知识分子的影响,通常是某个已故经济学家的奴隶。” 这些理论可能并不直接适用于特定问题,但随着时间的推移,它们会融入社会的“文化”并塑造决策者的直觉。约翰·梅纳德·凯恩斯 (John Maynard Keynes) 非常尖锐地指出了这一点:“经济学家和政治哲学家的思想,无论是正确的还是错误的,都比通常所理解的更强大。事实上,世界几乎没有其他人统治。务实的人,他们认为自己完全不受任何知识分子的影响,通常是某个已故经济学家的奴隶。” 无论是正确的还是错误的,都比通常理解的更强大。事实上,世界几乎没有其他人统治。务实的人,他们认为自己完全不受任何知识分子的影响,通常是某个已故经济学家的奴隶。” 无论是正确的还是错误的,都比通常理解的更强大。事实上,世界几乎没有其他人统治。务实的人,他们认为自己完全不受任何知识分子的影响,通常是某个已故经济学家的奴隶。”

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|True and Reasonable Theories

我在上一小节中使用了科学理论这个术语。为了本书的目的,理论被定义为一种相对宽泛的概念方法,它对世界上的因果关系做出合理的推测。

什么时候猜想是合理的,为什么在上面的陈述中找到“合理”这个词而不是“真的”?鉴于一个人的感官和思想的局限性,不可能说一个猜想在完全符合现实的意义上是正确的。简要地掌握由对真理的幼稚观念所带来的认知问题的一个好方法是对所谓的 Münchhausen 三难困境的简短阐述。基本问题是,科学推理要求人们准备好为自己的任何陈述提供证据。然而,这样的证明只能通过另一个陈述来给出,这也必须是可证明的。Münchhausen 三难困境指出,人们可以在三个不令人满意的选项之间进行选择来处理这种情况:

  • 无限回归:每个证明都需要进一步证明,无穷无尽。当然,这个过程永远不会结束,以至于永远不会“突破”到真相。可以理解,不可能举出无限倒退的例子。
  • 循环性:陈述和证明相互支持,也许在一个复杂的论点链中。一个例子是对进化论的错误解释,该理论将最适合环境的物种定义为能够生存的物种,然后有人认为观察到的物种必须最适合其环境。
  • 教条主义:在陈述和证明的过程中最终达到一个阶段,其中基本假设没有进一步的理由。教条主义的一个很好的例子是美国独立宣言的第二句话,即使它不是科学理论:“我们认为这些真理是不言而喻的,人人生而平等,造物主赋予他们拥有某些不可剥夺的权利,其中包括生命权、自由权和追求幸福的权利。” (富兰克林等人,2015)

出于所有实际意图和目的,只有教条主义是一种选择。这意味着真理不能通过科学推理的过程来实现,而必须依赖于必须由其他来源培养的直觉。出于同样的原因,教条主义也意味着每一个科学理论都必须从对基本不言而喻的原则的价值判断开始。回到关于理论的讨论,称一个猜想是合理的,因为它需要更温和的共识标准,从而咬住了三难困境的子弹。Wittgenstein (1972), 94 和 110 很好地表达了这一点:我也没有,因为我对它的正确性感到满意。不:这是我区分真假的遗传背景。[…] 好像在某个时候让步并没有结束。但结局并不是没有根据的预设:它是一种没有根据的行动方式。” 为了在专家之间达成共识,至少必须就(也许是下意识地)玷污自己观点的不同教条达成一致。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考 请认准statistics-lab™

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金融工程代写

金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题,以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。

非参数统计代写

非参数统计指的是一种统计方法,其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型;这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。

广义线性模型代考

广义线性模型(GLM)归属统计学领域,是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。

术语 广义线性模型(GLM)通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归,以及方差分析和方差分析(仅含固定效应)。

有限元方法代写

有限元方法(FEM)是一种流行的方法,用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。

有限元是一种通用的数值方法,用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程(即一些边界值问题)。为了解决一个问题,有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分,称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的,它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的:用于求解的数值域,它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统,以模拟整个问题。然后,有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构,多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务,包括但不限于Essay代写,Assignment代写,Dissertation代写,Report代写,小组作业代写,Proposal代写,Paper代写,Presentation代写,计算机作业代写,论文修改和润色,网课代做,exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中,本科,研究生等海外留学全阶段,辐射金融,经济学,会计学,审计学,管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者,也有海外名校硕博留学生,每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力,专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创,100%专业,100%准时,100%满意。

随机分析代写


随机微积分是数学的一个分支,对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。

时间序列分析代写

随机过程,是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体,参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现,其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值(如1秒,5分钟,12小时,7天,1年),因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中,往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录,以得到其自身发展的规律。

回归分析代写

多元回归分析渐进(Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics)属于计量经济学领域,主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法,可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系,在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中,其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括:数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发,包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统,其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题,尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题,而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问,这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展,得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中,它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域,MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要,工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数(M 文件)的综合集合,可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

R语言代写问卷设计与分析代写
PYTHON代写回归分析与线性模型代写
MATLAB代写方差分析与试验设计代写
STATA代写机器学习/统计学习代写
SPSS代写计量经济学代写
EVIEWS代写时间序列分析代写
EXCEL代写深度学习代写
SQL代写各种数据建模与可视化代写

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|THE ANTI-TEXT

如果你也在 怎样代写微观经济学Microeconomics这个学科遇到相关的难题,请随时右上角联系我们的24/7代写客服。

微观经济学是主流经济学的一个分支,研究个人和企业在做出有关稀缺资源分配的决策时的行为以及这些个人和企业之间的相互作用。

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写微观经济学Microeconomics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写微观经济学Microeconomics代写方面经验极为丰富,各种代写微观经济学Microeconomics相关的作业也就用不着说。

我们提供的微观经济学Microeconomics及其相关学科的代写,服务范围广, 其中包括但不限于:

  • Statistical Inference 统计推断
  • Statistical Computing 统计计算
  • Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
  • Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
  • (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
  • Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
  • Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
  • Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|THE ANTI-TEXT

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Problems with the textbook model

The analysis of the tariff The analysis of tariff removal compares two equilibrium positions. The implicit assumption is that the economy moves instantly and costlessly from one equilibrium to the other. This is not just a simplification for the convenience of students; it is common in empirical studies of changes in trade policy. These typically simulate what the economy would look like after a change in trade policy, but only consider the new equilibrium when all adjustments have taken place.

Perfectly competitive models of factor markets could be used to describe just such instantaneous and costless reallocations of resources. But in reality, the economy does not hop from one position on the production possibilities frontier to another; it follows a path inside the frontier as factors of production leave the import-competing sectors, and spend time unemployed before perhaps becoming re-employed in other sectors. The income lost during unemployment and the costs of becoming re-employed should be counted. ‘Economists have sometimes dismissed such adjustment costs with the comment that the displaced factors become re-employed “in

the longrun”. But this is bad economics, since in discounting streams of costs and benefits … the near-present counts more heavily than “the long run”‘, as some well-known international trade economists pointed out long ago., ${ }^{2}$ To be fair, many texts go beyond the simple Ricardian model to acknowledge the reality that some workers may lose their jobs and experience unemployment or a permanent reduction in earnings as demand for their skills declines. But as we will see in the next section this does not influence their judgement about the net gains from trade.

As well, the argument is commonly made (as we saw in Figure 10.1) that consumers benefit from lower prices for imported goods, resulting in an expansion of consumer surplus. But did you notice in our earlier ‘textbook’ exposition that this is only half the story? American economist Robert Driskill writes that in their enthusiasm for free trade, exponents of its benefits sometimes neglect to note that when tariffs are removed, the relative price of exportable goods must rise. People buying those goods will see their consumer surplus shrink. Whether any particular consumer is better off or worse off depends on the balance between the importable and exportable goods they buy. ${ }^{3}$

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Relaxing the textbook’s assumptions

The simple Ricardian model that illustrates comparative advantage and the gains from trade makes some critical assumptions. Technologies can differ permanently between countries; neither the technology nor factors of production can move between them. Only consumption goods can move internationally. It also assumes perfect competition and constant returns in production.

We will briefly consider what happens when each of these assumptions is relaxed. We then get a glimpse of the real world where corporations offshore production, taking their technology with them. Workers lose their jobs, putting downward pressure on wages in rich countries. Increasing returns lead to arbitrary patterns of specialization both within and between countries.

Technological change Paul Samuelson described what happens to countries’ national incomes if technology changes as a result of local developments. To adapt his analysis to our simple Ricardian wheat and cloth example from Chapter 2: suppose England experiences a technological improvement in wheat production, the good in which Canada has a comparative advantage. This lowers theworld price of wheat and reduces Canada’s gains from trade. Canada’s national income falls as its terms of trade fall (i.e. it must export more to get a given amount of imports). In the worst case, it eliminates Canada’s gains from trade and trade stops.

Samuelson pointed out that this kind of technological catch-up on the part of less developed, lower-wage regions has been common through history, both within countries and between countries. While total incomes rise in the areas ‘catching up’, income falls in the previously more advanced regions. ${ }^{20}$

Workers, owners, internationally mobile technology and capital The Ricardian model treats everyone like worker-owners, such as farmers who grow wheat and who keep sheep (who provide the wool to make the cloth). They consume some of their own produce and trade the rest. In this simple setting, there are no winners and losers; everyone can gain from trade. Yet, as Stephen Marglin remarks, ‘the distinction between worker and owner is basic to capitalism, as is the distinction between producer and consumer’, adding: ‘it is not just a simplification to ignore these realities but a distortion’ $.21$

Marglin offers a more realistic model in a simple numerical example to illustrate what happens when workers and owners are considered separately. In the case he considers, a multinational corporation located in an industrialized country offshores some of its nail production to a developing country. ${ }^{22}$ Both technology and the physical capital in which it is embodied move. This is an example of a way in which technological differences between countries can change that is different in an important way from Samuelson’s analysis, where the technological change took place abroad, but without a flow of capital.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|What’s missing from the textbooks

Once again, the usual suspects are missing in the textbook account: externalities, asymmetric information and power. In the international context, they raise new problems.

The problem of externalities The textbook analysis of trade assumes the usual default case of no externalities. As we stressed in Chapter 7 , externalities are everywhere. When they are not taken into account in decision-making, international trade will be inefficiently large.

The most obvious externalities are global: the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions that are involved in the transportation of all kinds of traded goods and services, whether it is fresh flowers flown from Kenya to England, container ships travelling from China to Rotterdam, or millions of tourists flying to exotic locations. Neither international aviation nor international shipping were directly included in the 2015 Paris climate agreement. Negotiations and planning to deal with their rapidly growing emissions were left to the UN organizations dealing with these industries. ${ }^{28}$ Whether these will be effective remains to be seen.

Indian-British economist Partha Dasgupta gives a nice example of more local externalities. ${ }^{29}$ Suppose that the government of a developing country offers timber concessions to private companies which cut down the forest and export the wood. This damages watersheds and the livelihoods of farmers and fishers downstream. They have too little political power to get compensation for the damage they suffer. This effectively subsidizes the country’s timber exports and transfers wealth from the poorest people in a poor country to the owners of the forestry companies and to importers in rich countries.

How big are such subsidies and how much is trade influenced by them? Dasgupta writes: ‘Unfortunately, I can give you no idea … because they haven’t been estimated. International organizations have the resources to undertake such studies; but, to the best of my knowledge, they haven’t done so.’ He rightly adds that examples like this do not make a case against free

trade, as such, but they do show that the case for free trade must include a consideration of its environmental impacts. ${ }^{3 \circ}$

Defenders of globalization, such as economist Martin Wolf of the Financial Times, dismiss such concerns about exports being, in effect, subsidized by externalized costs.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|THE ANTI-TEXT

微观经济学代考

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Problems with the textbook model

关税分析 关税取消分析比较了两个均衡位置。隐含的假设是经济会立即且无成本地从一个均衡转移到另一个均衡。这不仅仅是为了方便学生的简化;这在贸易政策变化的实证研究中很常见。这些通常模拟贸易政策改变后经济的样子,但只考虑所有调整都发生后的新均衡。

要素市场的完全竞争模型可以用来描述这种即时且无成本的资源重新配置。但实际上,经济不会从生产可能性边界的一个位置跳到另一个位置。随着生产要素离开与进口竞争的部门,并在可能重新进入其他部门之前失业,它沿着边境内部的路径前进。失业期间损失的收入和重新就业的成本应该计算在内。“经济学家有时会驳斥这种调整成本,并评论说被取代的因素会重新就业”

长期”。但这是糟糕的经济学,因为在折现成本和收益流时……正如一些著名的国际贸易经济学家很久以前指出的那样,近期比“长期”更重要。2公平地说,许多文本超越了简单的李嘉图模型,承认了这样一个现实,即随着对技能的需求下降,一些工人可能会失去工作并经历失业或收入永久性减少。但正如我们将在下一节中看到的,这不会影响他们对交易净收益的判断。

同样,人们普遍认为(如图 10.1 所示)消费者受益于进口商品的低价,从而导致消费者剩余的扩大。但是您是否注意到在我们之前的“教科书”论述中这只是故事的一半?美国经济学家罗伯特·德里斯基尔(Robert Driskill)写道,在他们对自由贸易的热情中,其利益的代表者有时忽略了当关税被取消时,出口商品的相对价格必须上涨。购买这些商品的人将看到他们的消费者剩余减少。任何特定消费者的境况是好是坏取决于他们购买的进口商品和出口商品之间的平衡。3

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Relaxing the textbook’s assumptions

说明比较优势和贸易收益的简单李嘉图模型做出了一些关键假设。国家之间的技术可能永久不同;技术和生产要素都不能在它们之间移动。只有消费品可以国际流通。它还假设生产中的完全竞争和恒定回报。

我们将简要考虑当这些假设都放松时会发生什么。然后,我们瞥见了公司离岸生产并随身携带技术的现实世界。工人失去工作,给富裕国家的工资带来下行压力。报酬递增导致国家内部和国家之间的任意专业化模式。

技术变革 Paul Samuelson 描述了如果技术因当地发展而发生变化,国家的国民收入会发生什么变化。为了使他的分析适应我们第 2 章中李嘉图小麦和布料的简单例子:假设英国在小麦生产方面经历了技术进步,加拿大在这方面具有比较优势。这降低了小麦的世界价格并减少了加拿大的贸易收益。加拿大的国民收入随着其贸易条件的下降而下降(即它必须出口更多才能获得一定数量的进口)。在最坏的情况下,它会抵消加拿大从贸易和贸易止损中获得的收益。

萨缪尔森指出,欠发达、低工资地区的这种技术追赶在历史上很常见,无论是在国家内部还是国家之间。虽然“追赶”地区的总收入增加,但之前更发达的地区的收入下降。20

工人、所有者、国际移动技术和资本李嘉图模式将每个人都视为工人所有者,例如种植小麦和养羊的农民(他们提供羊毛来制作布料)。他们消费自己的一些产品,其余的进行交易。在这个简单的设置中,没有赢家和输家;每个人都可以从贸易中获益。然而,正如斯蒂芬·马格林所说,“工人和所有者之间的区别是资本主义的基础,生产者和消费者之间的区别也是如此”,并补充说:“忽视这些现实不仅是一种简化,而且是一种扭曲。”.21

Marglin 在一个简单的数值示例中提供了一个更现实的模型来说明当工人和所有者被分开考虑时会发生什么。在他考虑的案例中,位于工业化国家的跨国公司将其部分钉子生产转移到发展中国家。22技术和体现它的物质资本都在移动。这是国家间技术差异可能发生变化的一个例子,这与萨缪尔森的分析有很大不同,在萨缪尔森的分析中,技术变化发生在国外,但没有资本流动。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|What’s missing from the textbooks

再一次,教科书帐户中缺少通常的嫌疑人:外部性、不对称信息和权力。在国际背景下,它们提出了新的问题。

外部性问题 教科书式的贸易分析假定通常默认情况下没有外部性。正如我们在第 7 章中强调的那样,外部性无处不在。如果在决策中不考虑这些因素,国际贸易将是低效的。

最明显的外部性是全球性的:各种贸易商品和服务的运输所涉及的温室气体 (GHG) 排放,无论是从肯尼亚空运到英国的鲜花、从中国到鹿特丹的集装箱船,还是数百万的游客飞往异国情调的地方。国际航空和国际航运均未直接纳入 2015 年巴黎气候协议。处理快速增长的排放量的谈判和计划留给了处理这些行业的联合国组织。28这些是否有效还有待观察。

印裔英国经济学家 Partha Dasgupta 举了一个很好的例子来说明更多的地方外部性。29假设一个发展中国家的政府向砍伐森林和出口木材的私营公司提供木材特许权。这损害了流域以及下游农民和渔民的生计。他们的政治权力太小,无法为他们所遭受的损害获得赔偿。这有效地补贴了该国的木材出口,并将财富从贫穷国家最贫穷的人转移到林业公司的所有者和富裕国家的进口商。

此类补贴有多大,贸易受其影响有多大?达斯古普塔写道:“不幸的是,我不能告诉你……因为他们没有被估计过。国际组织有资源进行此类研究;但是,据我所知,他们还没有这样做。他正确地补充说,像这样的例子并不构成反对免费的理由

贸易本身,但它们确实表明,自由贸易的理由必须包括对其环境影响的考虑。3∘

全球化的捍卫者,例如英国《金融时报》的经济学家马丁沃尔夫,对出口实际上受到外部成本补贴的担忧不予理会。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考 请认准statistics-lab™

统计代写请认准statistics-lab™. statistics-lab™为您的留学生涯保驾护航。

金融工程代写

金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题,以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。

非参数统计代写

非参数统计指的是一种统计方法,其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型;这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。

广义线性模型代考

广义线性模型(GLM)归属统计学领域,是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。

术语 广义线性模型(GLM)通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归,以及方差分析和方差分析(仅含固定效应)。

有限元方法代写

有限元方法(FEM)是一种流行的方法,用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。

有限元是一种通用的数值方法,用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程(即一些边界值问题)。为了解决一个问题,有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分,称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的,它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的:用于求解的数值域,它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统,以模拟整个问题。然后,有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构,多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务,包括但不限于Essay代写,Assignment代写,Dissertation代写,Report代写,小组作业代写,Proposal代写,Paper代写,Presentation代写,计算机作业代写,论文修改和润色,网课代做,exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中,本科,研究生等海外留学全阶段,辐射金融,经济学,会计学,审计学,管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者,也有海外名校硕博留学生,每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力,专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创,100%专业,100%准时,100%满意。

随机分析代写


随机微积分是数学的一个分支,对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。

时间序列分析代写

随机过程,是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体,参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现,其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值(如1秒,5分钟,12小时,7天,1年),因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中,往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录,以得到其自身发展的规律。

回归分析代写

多元回归分析渐进(Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics)属于计量经济学领域,主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法,可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系,在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中,其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括:数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发,包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统,其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题,尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题,而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问,这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展,得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中,它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域,MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要,工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数(M 文件)的综合集合,可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

R语言代写问卷设计与分析代写
PYTHON代写回归分析与线性模型代写
MATLAB代写方差分析与试验设计代写
STATA代写机器学习/统计学习代写
SPSS代写计量经济学代写
EVIEWS代写时间序列分析代写
EXCEL代写深度学习代写
SQL代写各种数据建模与可视化代写

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|THE STANDARD TEXT

如果你也在 怎样代写微观经济学Microeconomics这个学科遇到相关的难题,请随时右上角联系我们的24/7代写客服。

微观经济学是主流经济学的一个分支,研究个人和企业在做出有关稀缺资源分配的决策时的行为以及这些个人和企业之间的相互作用。

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写微观经济学Microeconomics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写微观经济学Microeconomics代写方面经验极为丰富,各种代写微观经济学Microeconomics相关的作业也就用不着说。

我们提供的微观经济学Microeconomics及其相关学科的代写,服务范围广, 其中包括但不限于:

  • Statistical Inference 统计推断
  • Statistical Computing 统计计算
  • Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
  • Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
  • (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
  • Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
  • Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
  • Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础
经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|THE STANDARD TEXT

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|The extent and growth of international trade and investment

The importance of trade is typically expressed relative to the size of a country’s economy as measured by the total value of all the final goods and services it produces during the year – its gross domestic product (GDP). Trade takes place not only in goods, but also in services such as shipping, tourism and education. Table $10.1$ shows the relative size of exports and imports for a variety of countries and how these have changed from 1970 to 2019 , almost half a century.

For many countries, the relative importance of trade has increased substantially, particularly for developing countries such was India, China, Mexico and Turkey. Larger economies, such as the United States and Japan, are typically less reliant on trade than smaller countries. The very large values for Belgium and the Netherlands likely reflect the transshipment of goods through their major ports. As well, trade is typically not balanced, with some countries experiencing surpluses (exports exceeding imports) in 2019 , such as Germany. Others had deficits, such as the United States. A trade surplus reflects net lending to the rest of the world as the country sells more than it buys from the rest of the world. In effect, it is accumulating IOUs, promises to pay from other countries in the future. Similarly, trade deficits reflect net borrowing from the rest of the world.

There is nothing inherently good or bad about a trade surplus or deficit; it depends upon the circumstances in which it takes place. For example, a country in which there are good investment opportunities may have a trade deficit as it imports goods and services now to make those investments, enhancing its ability to export in the future.

This increase in trade has occurred for a variety of reasons. Reductions in transportation costs have been significant – consider, for example, the development of containerized shipping. This and improved communications have permitted the development of global supply chains, so that individual products can be produced from components made in many countries. Under a variety of trade agreements, trade barriers have been reduced since the 1970 . The remarkable growth of the Chinese economy since the 1980 and it joining the World Trade Organization (WTO) has been another contributing factor.

In Chapter 2, we explained how trade is determined by comparative advantage, relative costs of production between countries, and how this allows both countries to gain from trade. Restrictions on trade, such as tariffs, can reduce those gains. Let’s see how.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|The economics of tariffs and import protection

We’ll analyse the effects of a tariff (i.e. tax on imports) on nails. For simplicity, we consider the ‘small country’ case, where the importing country takes

the world price of nails (here, $\$ 10 /$ kilo of nails) as given: its imports are too small to influence the price in any appreciable way. Figure $10.1$ illustrates this situation. At the world price, demand exceeds domestic supply; the difference is imports.

If the government imposes a tariff of $\$ 1 /$ kilo on nails, the domestic price rises by the same amount. Foreign suppliers of imported nails must get \$11// kilo of nails so that after paying the tariff they still get the world price of $\$ 10 /$ kilo. Otherwise, they would sell their nails elsewhere. The rise in price reduces the quantity demanded and increases the quantity produced domestically. As a result, imports decline.

The effect of the tariff is to make consumers of nails worse off and domestic producers of nails better off, while giving the government some revenue from that tariff. What is the net effect?

First, note that the price increase reduces consumers’ surplus (the area under the demand curve and above the price) by the areas $a+b+c+d$ in Figure 10.1. Area $c$ is the government’s tariff revenue, which involves no loss to society. (Imagine that it is returned to the population as a cash transfer.) The domestic nail producers get areas $a+b$ as they produce more and at a higher price. Part of that (area ‘ $b$ ‘), however, represents additional marginal costs of production above the world price, $P_{w}$, so really only area ‘ $a$ ‘ adds to their profits. If those who get these added profits are domestic residents, that results in no loss to society. The net result is that consumers have lost $a+b+c+d$, producers get ‘ $a$ ‘, governments get ‘ $c$ ‘; thus ‘ $b$ + $d$ ‘ is the net loss to society as a whole from the tariff. The loss comes from two sources: reduced consumption lowers consumer

surplus ( $d$ ‘) and the society has accepted higher domestic costs of production of nails than it could have paid to get the nails from abroad (“b’).

The analysis of a policy that limits imports to a certain maximum level (called an import quota or a quantitative restriction) is the same with the exception that in that case the government gets no tariff revenue. Either domestic importers or foreign producers get the benefits of the higher price, depending on who gets the valuable rights to import the limited amount of foreign nails.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|The argument for free trade

The net costs of a tariff or a quota are the same as the net gains from removing them. Consumers gain consumer surplus from the lower price and greater consumption; on the production side, society’s resources are directed more towards the goods in which it has a comparative advantage. Total income in the country is higher and, as we saw in Chapter 2, every consumer can potentially have more of all goods. Those employed or owning capital in import-competing industries will be made worse off as they have to find employment elsewhere or accept lower incomes, but trade raises the economic well-being of a nation in the sense that the gains of the winners exceed the losses of the losers. Total surplus is increased. Therefore, the winners could compensate the losers and still be better off. In this sense, trade can make everyone better off.

Governments may provide assistance to those hurt by changes in trade policy, but compensation is unlikely to be complete. As a result, changes in trade policy are often controversial. The losers, being smaller in number than those who gain, may be in a better position to organize to obtain tariffs or to block trade liberalization. As a result, nations may fail to fully enjoy the gains from trade.

If all countries pursue free trade, the world would have a more efficient allocation of resources and a higher level of material well-being. Trade has the additional benefit that exposure to foreign competition also keeps domestic producers on their toes, adopting the best technologies to keep costs low and productivity high. The greater interdependence of economies around the world through trade and investment also promotes peace by making war more costly.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|THE STANDARD TEXT

微观经济学代考

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|The extent and growth of international trade and investment

贸易的重要性通常相对于一个国家的经济规模来表示,该经济规模以该国在这一年生产的所有最终商品和服务的总价值——其国内生产总值 (GDP) 来衡量。贸易不仅发生在货物方面,还发生在航运、旅游和教育等服务领域。桌子10.1显示了各个国家的进出口的相对规模,以及从 1970 年到 2019 年近半个世纪以来这些变化的情况。

对于许多国家而言,贸易的相对重要性已大幅增加,特别是对于印度、中国、墨西哥和土耳其等发展中国家而言。美国和日本等较大的经济体通常比较小的国家更少依赖贸易。比利时和荷兰的巨大价值可能反映了货物通过其主要港口转运。同样,贸易通常不平衡,一些国家在 2019 年出现顺差(出口超过进口),例如德国。其他国家有赤字,例如美国。贸易顺差反映了对世界其他地区的净贷款,因为该国的销售量超过了从世界其他地区购买的量。实际上,它正在积累借条,承诺将来从其他国家支付。相似地,

贸易顺差或逆差本质上没有好坏之分;这取决于它发生的环境。例如,一个拥有良好投资机会的国家可能会出现贸易逆差,因为它现在进口商品和服务以进行这些投资,从而增强其未来的出口能力。

贸易的这种增长有多种原因。运输成本的降低是显着的——例如,考虑集装箱运输的发展。这种和改进的通信促进了全球供应链的发展,因此可以使用许多国家制造的组件生产单个产品。根据各种贸易协定,自 1970 年以来,贸易壁垒有所减少。自 1980 年以来中国经济的显着增长以及中国加入世界贸易组织 (WTO) 是另一个促成因素。

在第 2 章中,我们解释了贸易是如何由比较优势、国家之间的相对生产成本决定的,以及这如何使两国从贸易中获益。关税等贸易限制可能会减少这些收益。让我们看看如何。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|The economics of tariffs and import protection

我们将分析关税(即进口税)对指甲的影响。为简单起见,我们考虑“小国”的情况,进口国采取

世界钉子价格(这里,$10/一公斤钉子),因为它的进口量太小,无法以任何明显的方式影响价格。数字10.1说明了这种情况。以世界价格计算,需求超过国内供应;区别在于进口。

如果政府征收关税$1/一公斤钉子,国内价格上涨了同样的数量。进口钉子的外国供应商必须得到11美元//公斤的钉子,这样在支付关税后,他们仍能获得世界价格$10/公斤。否则,他们会在别处卖指甲。价格上涨减少了需求量,增加了国内生产的数量。结果,进口下降。

关税的效果是让美甲消费者的境况变得更糟,而国内美甲生产商的境况变得更好,同时让政府从关税中获得一些收入。净效应是什么?

首先,请注意,价格上涨会减少消费者剩余(需求曲线下方和价格上方的面积)的面积一个+b+C+d在图 10.1 中。区域C是政府的关税收入,不涉及社会损失。(想象一下,它作为现金转移返还给民众。)国内美甲生产商获得了地区一个+b因为他们以更高的价格生产更多。其中一部分(区域’b’),然而,代表高于世界价格的额外边际生产成本,磷在, 所以真的只有区域 ‘一个’ 增加了他们的利润。如果获得这些额外利润的人是国内居民,那对社会没有任何损失。最终结果是消费者失去了一个+b+C+d, 生产者得到 ‘一个’,政府得到’C’; 因此 ‘b + d’是关税给整个社会带来的净损失。损失来自两个来源:减少消费降低消费者

剩余(d’)并且社会已经接受了国内生产指甲的成本高于从国外获取指甲所支付的成本(“b”)。

对将进口限制在某个最高水平(称为进口配额或数量限制)的政策的分析是相同的,只是在这种情况下政府不会获得关税收入。无论是国内进口商还是外国生产商,都能从更高的价格中获益,这取决于谁获得了进口有限数量的外国钉子的宝贵权利。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|The argument for free trade

关税或配额的净成本与取消它们的净收益相同。消费者从较低的价格和较大的消费中获得消费者剩余;在生产方面,社会资源更多地用于其具有比较优势的商品。该国的总收入更高,正如我们在第 2 章中看到的,每个消费者都可能拥有更多的商品。那些在进口竞争行业就业或拥有资本的人将变得更糟,因为他们不得不在其他地方找到工作或接受较低的收入,但贸易提高了一个国家的经济福祉,因为赢家的收益超过了损失的失败者。总盈余增加。因此,赢家可以补偿输家,但仍然过得更好。从这个意义上说,贸易可以让每个人都过得更好。

政府可能会向那些因贸易政策变化而受到伤害的人提供援助,但补偿不太可能是完全的。因此,贸易政策的变化常常引起争议。输家数量少于赢家,可能更容易组织起来获得关税或阻止贸易自由化。结果,各国可能无法充分享受贸易收益。

如果所有国家都追求自由贸易,世界将拥有更有效的资源配置和更高水平的物质福祉。贸易还有一个额外的好处,即暴露于外国竞争也让国内生产商保持警惕,采用最好的技术来保持低成本和高生产率。世界各地经济体通过贸易和投资实现更大的相互依存,也使战争成本更高,从而促进了和平。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考 请认准statistics-lab™

统计代写请认准statistics-lab™. statistics-lab™为您的留学生涯保驾护航。

金融工程代写

金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题,以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。

非参数统计代写

非参数统计指的是一种统计方法,其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型;这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。

广义线性模型代考

广义线性模型(GLM)归属统计学领域,是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。

术语 广义线性模型(GLM)通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归,以及方差分析和方差分析(仅含固定效应)。

有限元方法代写

有限元方法(FEM)是一种流行的方法,用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。

有限元是一种通用的数值方法,用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程(即一些边界值问题)。为了解决一个问题,有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分,称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的,它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的:用于求解的数值域,它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统,以模拟整个问题。然后,有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构,多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务,包括但不限于Essay代写,Assignment代写,Dissertation代写,Report代写,小组作业代写,Proposal代写,Paper代写,Presentation代写,计算机作业代写,论文修改和润色,网课代做,exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中,本科,研究生等海外留学全阶段,辐射金融,经济学,会计学,审计学,管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者,也有海外名校硕博留学生,每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力,专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创,100%专业,100%准时,100%满意。

随机分析代写


随机微积分是数学的一个分支,对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。

时间序列分析代写

随机过程,是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体,参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现,其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值(如1秒,5分钟,12小时,7天,1年),因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中,往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录,以得到其自身发展的规律。

回归分析代写

多元回归分析渐进(Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics)属于计量经济学领域,主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法,可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系,在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中,其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括:数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发,包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统,其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题,尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题,而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问,这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展,得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中,它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域,MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要,工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数(M 文件)的综合集合,可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

R语言代写问卷设计与分析代写
PYTHON代写回归分析与线性模型代写
MATLAB代写方差分析与试验设计代写
STATA代写机器学习/统计学习代写
SPSS代写计量经济学代写
EVIEWS代写时间序列分析代写
EXCEL代写深度学习代写
SQL代写各种数据建模与可视化代写