澳洲代写|ECON20001|Intermediate Macroeconomics中级宏观经济学 墨尔本大学

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课程介绍:

Intermediate macroeconomic analysis develops the tools, skills and knowledge base necessary to operate as a practicing macroeconomist. These may include: models of long run economic growth; an assessment of the evidence on economic growth and its implications; the flexible-price macroeconomic model in which markets continuously clear; an assessment of the evidence regarding whether prices and wages are flexible or sticky; the sticky price macroeconomic model in which markets do not always clear; assessment of the flexible and sticky price models; the analysis of macroeconomic policy making.

澳洲代写|ECON20001|Intermediate Macroeconomics中级宏观经济学 墨尔本大学

Intermediate Macroeconomics中级宏观经济学案例


To an economist, a model is a simplified representation of the economy; it is essentially a representation of the economy in which only the main ingredients are being accounted for. Since we are interested in analyzing the direction of relationships (e.g. does investment go up or down when interest rates increase?) and the quantitative impact of those (e.g. how much does investment change after a one percentage point increase in interest rates?), in economics, a model is composed of a set of mathematical relationships. Through these mathematical relationships, the economist determines how variables (like an interest rate) affect each other (e.g. investment). Models are not the only way to study human behavior. Indeed, in the natural sciences, scientists typically follow a different approach.

Imagine a chemist wants to examine the effectiveness of a certain new medicine in addressing a specific illness. After testing the effects of drugs on guinea pigs the chemist decides to perform experiments on humans. How would she go about it? Well, she will select a group of people willing to participate – providing the right incentives as, we know from
45
principles, incentives can affect behavior – and, among these, she randomly divides members in two groups: a control and a treatment group. The control group will be given a placebo (something that resembles the medicine to be given but has no physical effect in the person who takes it). The treatment group is composed by the individuals that were selected to take the real medicine. As you may suspect, the effects of the medicine on humans will be based on the differences between the treatment and control group. As these individuals were randomly selected, any difference to which the illness is affecting them can be attributed to the medicine. In other words, the experiment provides a way of measuring the extent to which that particular drug is effective in diminishing the effects of the disease.

Ideally, we would like to perform the same type of experiments with respect to economic policies. Variations of lab experiments have proven to be a useful approach in some areas of economics that focus on very specific markets or group of agents. In macroeconomics, however, things are different.

Suppose we are interested in studying the effects of training programs in improving the chances unemployed workers find jobs. Clearly the best way to do this would be to split the pool of unemployed workers in two groups, whose members are randomly selected. Here is where the problem with experiments of this sort becomes clear. Given the cost associated with unemployment, would it be morally acceptable to prevent some workers from joining a program that could potentially reduce the time without a job? What if we are trying to understand the effects a sudden reduction in income has on consumption for groups with different levels of savings? Would it be morally acceptable to suddenly confiscate income from a group? Most would agree not. As such, economists develop models, and in these models we run experiments. A model provides us a fictitious economy in which these issues can be analyzed and the economic mechanisms can be understood.

All models are not created equal and some models are better to answer one particular question but not another one. Given this, you may wonder how to judge when a model is appropriate. This is a difficult question. The soft consensus, however, is that a model should be able to capture features of the data that it was not artificially constructed to capture. Any simplified representation of reality will not have the ability to explain every aspect of that reality. In the same way, a simplified version of the economy will not be able to account for all the data that an economy generates. A model that can be useful to study how unemployed workers and firms find each other will not necessarily be able to account for the behavior of important economic variables such as the interest rate. What is expected is that the model matches relevant features of the process through which workers and firms meet.

对经济学家而言,模型是经济的简化表示;它本质上是只考虑主要成分的经济表示。由于我们感兴趣的是分析各种关系的方向(例如,利率上升时投资是上升还是下降?)以及这些关系的定量影响(例如,利率上升一个百分点后投资会发生多大变化?通过这些数学关系,经济学家可以确定变量(如利率)如何相互影响(如投资)。模型并不是研究人类行为的唯一方法。事实上,在自然科学领域,科学家通常采用不同的方法。

想象一下,一位化学家想研究某种新药在治疗特定疾病方面的效果。在对豚鼠进行药物效果测试后,化学家决定在人类身上进行实验。她会怎么做呢?她会选择一群愿意参与实验的人,并提供适当的激励措施。
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在这些人中,她会随机将成员分成两组:对照组和治疗组。对照组将服用安慰剂(类似于要服用的药物,但对服用者没有任何生理作用)。治疗组由被选中服用真药的人组成。正如您所猜测的那样,药物对人体的影响将基于治疗组和对照组之间的差异。由于这些人是随机抽取的,因此疾病对他们造成的任何影响都可以归因于药物。换句话说,实验提供了一种方法来衡量特定药物对减轻疾病影响的有效程度。

在理想情况下,我们也希望在经济政策方面进行同样的实验。在经济学的某些领域,实验室实验的变体已被证明是一种有用的方法,这些领域关注的是非常具体的市场或代理群体。但在宏观经济学中,情况有所不同。

假设我们有兴趣研究培训计划在提高失业工人找到工作机会方面的效果。显然,最好的办法是将失业工人分成两组,随机抽取其成员。在这里,此类实验的问题就很明显了。考虑到与失业相关的成本,阻止一些工人参加一个有可能缩短失业时间的项目,在道德上是否可以接受?如果我们试图了解收入突然减少对不同储蓄水平群体的消费有何影响?突然没收一个群体的收入在道义上可以接受吗?大多数人都认为不会。因此,经济学家建立模型,并在这些模型中进行实验。模型为我们提供了一个虚构的经济环境,我们可以在其中分析这些问题,了解经济机制。

并非所有的模型都是一样的,有些模型可以更好地回答某个问题,但却不能更好地回答另一个问题。有鉴于此,您可能会问,如何判断一个模型是否合适。这是一个难题。不过,一个软性共识是,模型应该能够捕捉数据的特征,而不是人为地构建模型来捕捉这些特征。任何对现实的简化表示都无法解释现实的方方面面。同样,经济的简化版本也无法解释经济产生的所有数据。一个可以用来研究失业工人和企业如何互相找到对方的模型,并不一定能够解释利率等重要经济变量的行为。我们所期望的是,模型能够与工人和企业相遇过程的相关特征相匹配。


Mathematical Diversion数学发散思维定义

Referring back to the assumed mathematical properties of the production function, we assumed that the production function has constant returns to scale. In words, this means that doubling both inputs results in a doubling of output. A fancier term for constant returns to scale is to say that the function is homogeneous of degree 1. More generally, a function is homogeneous of degree $\rho$ if:
$$
F\left(\gamma K_t, \gamma N_t\right)=\gamma^\rho F\left(K_t, N_t\right)
$$
where $\gamma=1$ corresponds to the case of constant returns to scale. $\gamma<1$ is what is called decreasing returns to scale (meaning that doubling both inputs results in a less than doubling of output), while $\gamma>1$ is increasing returns to

scale (doubling both inputs results in a more than doubling of output). Euler’s theorem for homogeneous functions states (see Mathworld (2016)) if a function is homogeneous of degree $\rho$, then:
$$
\rho F\left(K_t, N_t\right)=F_K\left(K_t, N_t\right) K_t+F_N\left(K_t, N_t\right) N_t
$$
If $\rho=1$ (as we have assumed), this says that the function can be written as the sum of partial derivatives times the factor being differentiated with respect to. To see this in action for the Cobb-Douglas production function, note:
$$
\begin{aligned}
K_t^\alpha N_t^{1-\alpha} & =\alpha K_t^{\alpha-1} N_t^{1-\alpha} K_t+(1-\alpha) K_t^\alpha N_t^{-\alpha} N_t \
& =\alpha K_t^\alpha N_t^{1-\alpha}+(1-\alpha) K_t^\alpha N_t^{1-\alpha} \
& =K_t^\alpha N_t^{1-\alpha}(\alpha+1-\alpha)=K_t^\alpha N_t^{1-\alpha} .
\end{aligned}
$$
Euler’s theorem also states that, if a function is homogeneous of degree $\rho$, then its first partial derivatives are homogeneous of degree $\rho-1$. This has the implication, for example, that:
$$
F_K\left(\gamma K_t, \gamma N_t\right)=\gamma^{\rho-1} F_K\left(K_t, N_t\right)
$$

回到生产函数的假定数学特性,我们假定生产函数的规模收益不变。换句话说,这意味着投入增加一倍,产出就会增加一倍。规模收益恒定的一个更高级的说法是,该函数是1度均质的。更一般地说,如果出现以下情况,函数就是$\rho$度均质的:
$$
F\left(\gamma K_t, \gamma N_t\right)=\gamma^\rho F\left(K_t, N_t\right)
$$
其中,$\gamma=1$对应于规模收益不变的情况。$\gamma<1$是所谓的规模收益递减(即两种投入加倍导致产出增加不到一倍),而$\gamma>1$是规模收益递增(两种投入加倍导致产出增加不到一倍)。

而 $/gamma>1$ 则是规模收益递增(两种投入加倍会导致产出增加一倍以上)。同质函数的欧拉定理指出(见 Mathworld (2016)),如果一个函数的同质度为 $\rho$,那么:
$$
\rho F\left(K_t, N_t\right)=F_K\left(K_t, N_t\right) K_t+F_N\left(K_t, N_t\right) N_t
$$
如果 $\rho=1$(就像我们假设的那样),这说明函数可以写成偏导数乘以被微分因子的和。要在柯布-道格拉斯生产函数中看到这一点,请注意:
$$
\begin{aligned}
K_t^\alpha N_t^{1-\alpha} & =\alpha K_t^{\alpha-1} N_t^{1-\alpha} K_t+(1-\alpha) K_t^\alpha N_t^{-\alpha} N_t \
& =\alpha K_t^\alpha N_t^{1-\alpha}+(1-\alpha) K_t^\alpha N_t^{1-\alpha} \
& =K_t^\alpha N_t^{1-\alpha}(\alpha+1-\alpha)=K_t^\alpha N_t^{1-\alpha} .
\end{aligned}
$$
欧拉定理还指出,如果一个函数是阶为 $\rho$ 的同调函数,那么它的第一个偏导数就是阶为 $\rho-1$ 的同调函数。例如,这意味着
$$
F_K\left(\gamma K_t, \gamma N_t\right)=\gamma^{\rho-1} F_K\left(K_t, N_t\right)
$$


澳洲代写|ECON20001|Intermediate Macroeconomics中级宏观经济学 墨尔本大学

统计代写请认准statistics-lab™. statistics-lab™为您的留学生涯保驾护航。

金融工程代写

金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题,以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。

非参数统计代写

非参数统计指的是一种统计方法,其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型;这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。

广义线性模型代考

广义线性模型(GLM)归属统计学领域,是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。

术语 广义线性模型(GLM)通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归,以及方差分析和方差分析(仅含固定效应)。

有限元方法代写

有限元方法(FEM)是一种流行的方法,用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。

有限元是一种通用的数值方法,用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程(即一些边界值问题)。为了解决一个问题,有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分,称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的,它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的:用于求解的数值域,它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统,以模拟整个问题。然后,有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。

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随机分析代写


随机微积分是数学的一个分支,对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。

时间序列分析代写

随机过程,是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体,参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现,其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值(如1秒,5分钟,12小时,7天,1年),因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中,往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录,以得到其自身发展的规律。

回归分析代写

多元回归分析渐进(Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics)属于计量经济学领域,主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法,可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系,在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中,其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括:数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发,包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统,其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题,尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题,而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问,这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展,得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中,它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域,MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要,工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数(M 文件)的综合集合,可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

R语言代写问卷设计与分析代写
PYTHON代写回归分析与线性模型代写
MATLAB代写方差分析与试验设计代写
STATA代写机器学习/统计学习代写
SPSS代写计量经济学代写
EVIEWS代写时间序列分析代写
EXCEL代写深度学习代写
SQL代写各种数据建模与可视化代写

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