经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Substitution and Elasticity

如果你也在 怎样代写微观经济学Microeconomics 这个学科遇到相关的难题,请随时右上角联系我们的24/7代写客服。微观经济学Microeconomics是主流经济学的一个分支,研究个人和公司在做出有关稀缺资源分配的决策时的行为以及这些个人和公司之间的互动。微观经济学侧重于研究单个市场、部门或行业,而不是宏观经济学所研究的整个国民经济。

微观经济学Microeconomic的一个目标是分析在商品和服务之间建立相对价格的市场机制,并在各种用途之间分配有限资源。微观经济学显示了自由市场导致理想分配的条件。它还分析了市场失灵,即市场未能产生有效的结果。微观经济学关注公司和个人,而宏观经济学则关注经济活动的总和,处理增长、通货膨胀和失业问题以及与这些问题有关的国家政策。微观经济学还处理经济政策(如改变税收水平)对微观经济行为的影响,从而对经济的上述方面产生影响。

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写微观经济学Microeconomics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写微观经济学Microeconomics代写方面经验极为丰富,各种代写微观经济学Microeconomics相关的作业也就用不着说。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Substitution and Elasticity

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Substitution and Elasticity

Now that you know how to measure elasticity, let’s consider some of the factors that are likely to make demand more or less elastic, that is, more or less responsive to price.
How responsive quantity demanded will be to changes in price can be summed up in one word: substitution. As a general rule, the more substitutes a good has, the more elastic is its demand.
The reasoning is as follows: If a good has substitutes, a rise in the price of that good will cause the consumer to shift consumption to those substitute goods. Put another way, when a satisfactory substitute is available, a rise in that good’s price will have a large effect on the quantity demanded. For example, I think a Whopper is a satisfactory substitute for a Big Mac. If most people agree with me, when the price of Big Macs rises people will switch from Big Macs to Whoppers. The demand for Big Macs would be very elastic.
Substitution and Demand
The number of substitutes a good has is affected by several factors. Four of the most important are:
The time period being considered.
The degree to which a good is a luxury.
The market definition.
The importance of the good in one’s budget.
These four reasons are derivatives of the substitution factor. Let’s consider each to see why.
The time period being considered. The larger the time interval considered, or the longer the run, the more elastic is the good’s demand. There are more substitutes in the long run than in the short run. That’s because the long run provides more alternatives. Consider when the price of rubber went up significantly during World War II. In the short run, rubber had few substitutes; the demand for rubber was inelastic. In the long run, however, the rise in the price of rubber stimulated research for alternatives. Today automobile tires, which were made of all rubber when World War II broke out, are made from almost entirely synthetic materials. In the long run, demand was very elastic.
The degree to which a good is a luxury. The less a good is a necessity, the more elastic is its demand. Because by definition one cannot do without necessities, they tend to have fewer substitutes than do luxuries. Insulin for a diabetic is a necessity; the demand is highly inelastic. Chocolate Ecstasy cake, however, is a luxury. A variety of other luxuries can be substituted for it (for example, cheesecake or a ball game).
The market definition. As the definition of a good becomes more specific, demand becomes more elastic. If the good we’re talking about is broadly defined (say, transportation), it has few substitutes and demand will be inelastic. If you want to get from A to B, you need transportation. If the definition of the good is narrowed-say, to “transportation by bus” – there are more substitutes. Instead of taking a bus, you can walk, ride your bicycle, or drive your car. In that case, demand is more elastic.The importance of the good in one’s budget. Demand for goods that represent a large proportion of one’s budget is more elastic than demand for goods that represent a small proportion of one’s budget. Goods that cost very little relative to your total expenditures aren’t worth spending a lot of time figuring out whether there’s a good substitute. An example is pencils. Their low price means most people would buy just as many even if their price doubled. Their demand is inelastic. It is, however, worth spending lots of time looking for substitutes for goods that take a large portion of one’s income. The demand for such goods tends to be more elastic. Many colleges have discovered this as they tried to raise tuition when other colleges did not. The demand curve they faced was elastic.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|How Substitution Factors Affect Specific Decisions

Let’s consider how some of the substitution factors affect a specific decision. Let’s say you’ve been hired by two governments (the city of Washington, D.C., and the U.S. government) to advise them about the effect that raising the gas tax by 10 percent will have on tax revenues. You look at the three factors that affect elasticity of demand.
In your report to the two governments, you would point out that in the short run demand is less elastic than in the long run, since people aren’t going to trade in their gas-guzzling cars for fuel-efficient cars immediately in response to a 10 percent rise in gas taxes-partly because they can’t afford to, partly because they don’t want to, and partly because not that many fuel-efficient cars are available to buy at the moment.
When the time comes, however, that they would ordinarily purchase a new car, they’re likely to switch to cars that are more fuel-efficient than their old cars, and to switch as much as they can to forms of transportation that are more fuel-efficient than cars. In the long run the demand will be far more elastic.
The second point you’d note is that gasoline is generally considered a necessity, although not all driving is necessary. However, since gasoline is only a small part of the cost of driving a car, demand will probably tend to be inelastic.
The third factor (how specifically the good is defined) requires special care. It makes your recommendations for the government of the city of Washington, D.C., and the U.S. government quite different from each other. For the U.S. government, which is interested in the demand for gasoline in the entire United States, gasoline has a relatively inelastic demand. The general rule of thumb is that a 1-cent rise in tax will raise tax revenues by $\$ 1$ billion. That inelasticity can’t be carried over to the demand for gasoline in a city such as Washington, D.C. Because of the city’s size and location, people in Washington have a choice. A large proportion of the people who buy gas in Washington can as easily buy gas in the adjacent states of Maryland or Virginia. Gasoline in Washington is a narrowly defined good and therefore has a quite elastic demand. A rise in price will mean a large fall in the quantity of gas demanded.
I mention this point because someone forgot about it when the city of Washington, D.C., raised the tax on a gallon of gasoline by 8 cents, a rise at that time of about 10 percent (this was case 2 in our discussion of calculating elasticities on p. 124). In response, monthly gasoline sales in Washington fell from 16 million gallons to less than 11 million gallons, a 40 percent decrease! The demand for gas in Washington was not inelastic, as it was for the United States as a whole; it was very elastic $\left(E_D=4\right)$. Washingtonians went elsewhere to buy gas.
The fact that smaller geographic areas have more elastic demands limits how highly state and local governments can tax goods relative to their neighboring localities or states. Where there are tax differences, new stores open all along the border and existing stores expand to entice people to come over that border and save on taxes. For example, the liquor tax is higher in Vermont than in New Hampshire, so it isn’t surprising that right across the border from Vermont, New Hampshire has a large number of liquor stores. Here’s one final example: If you look at license plates in Janzen Beach, Oregon (right across the Washington state border), you’ll see a whole lot of Washington license plates. Why? If you answered that it likely has something to do with differential sales taxes in Washington and Oregon, you’ve got the idea.

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Substitution and Elasticity

微观经济学代考

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|Substitution and Elasticity

既然你知道了如何衡量弹性,让我们考虑一些可能使需求或多或少具有弹性的因素,即对价格的反应或多或少。
需求量对价格变化的反应可以用一个词来概括:替代。一般来说,一种商品的替代品越多,其需求的弹性就越大。
其推理如下:如果一种商品有替代品,那么该商品价格的上涨将导致消费者将消费转向这些替代品。换句话说,当有令人满意的替代品时,该商品价格的上涨将对需求量产生很大影响。例如,我认为Whopper是一个令人满意的替代品,如果大多数人同意我的观点,当巨无霸的价格上涨时,人们会从巨无霸转向Whoppers。对巨无霸的需求会很有弹性。
替代与需求
一种商品的替代品数量受到几个因素的影响。其中最重要的四个是:
所考虑的时间段。
奢侈品:一种商品成为奢侈品的程度
市场定义。
在一个人的预算中,商品的重要性。
这四个原因是替代因素的衍生物。让我们逐一分析其中的原因。
所考虑的时间段。考虑的时间间隔越大,或者运行时间越长,商品需求的弹性就越大。长期来看,替代品比短期来看要多。这是因为长期提供了更多的选择。想想二战期间橡胶价格的大幅上涨吧。在短期内,橡胶几乎没有替代品;对橡胶的需求是没有弹性的。然而,从长远来看,橡胶价格的上涨刺激了对替代品的研究。第二次世界大战爆发时,汽车轮胎全部由橡胶制成,而今天,汽车轮胎几乎完全由合成材料制成。从长期来看,需求是非常有弹性的。
奢侈品:一种商品成为奢侈品的程度一种商品的必要性越小,它的需求就越有弹性。因为根据定义,一个人不能没有必需品,他们往往比奢侈品替代品少。胰岛素对糖尿病患者来说是必需的;需求是高度无弹性的。然而,巧克力摇头丸蛋糕是一种奢侈品。各种各样的其他奢侈品可以代替它(例如,奶酪蛋糕或球类游戏)。
市场定义。随着商品的定义变得更加具体,需求变得更具弹性。如果我们谈论的商品是广义的(比如交通运输),它几乎没有替代品,需求将是无弹性的。如果你想从A地到B地,你需要交通工具。如果商品的定义被缩小——比如说,“公共汽车运输”——就会有更多的替代品。你可以步行、骑自行车或开车,而不是坐公共汽车。在这种情况下,需求更具弹性。在一个人的预算中,商品的重要性。对占预算很大比例的商品的需求比占预算很小比例的商品的需求更具弹性。相对于你的总支出来说成本很少的商品不值得你花很多时间去寻找是否有更好的替代品。铅笔就是一个例子。它们的低价意味着即使价格翻倍,大多数人也会购买同样多的产品。他们的需求缺乏弹性。然而,花大量时间寻找占个人收入很大一部分的商品的替代品是值得的。对这类商品的需求往往更具弹性。许多大学已经发现了这一点,因为他们试图提高学费,而其他大学没有。他们面临的需求曲线是弹性的。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考|How Substitution Factors Affect Specific Decisions

让我们考虑一些替代因素如何影响一个特定的决策。假设你被两个政府(华盛顿特区和美国政府)雇佣,就将汽油税提高10%将对税收产生的影响向他们提供建议。考虑影响需求弹性的三个因素。
在您给两国政府的报告中,您会指出,短期内需求的弹性不如长期需求,因为人们不会为了应对10%的汽油税上涨而立即将他们的高油耗汽车换成节能汽车——部分原因是他们负担不起,部分原因是他们不想这样做,部分原因是目前没有那么多节能汽车可供购买。
然而,到了他们通常会购买新车的时候,他们可能会转而购买比旧车更省油的汽车,并尽可能地转向比汽车更省油的交通方式。从长期来看,需求的弹性要大得多。
你要注意的第二点是,汽油通常被认为是必需品,尽管并非所有的驾驶都是必要的。然而,由于汽油只占驾驶汽车成本的一小部分,需求可能会趋于缺乏弹性。
第三个因素(如何具体定义好)需要特别注意。它使你对华盛顿特区政府和美国政府的建议截然不同。对于美国政府来说,它关心的是整个美国对汽油的需求,汽油的需求相对没有弹性。一般的经验法则是,每增加1美分的税收将增加10亿美元的税收收入。这种不弹性不能延续到像华盛顿特区这样的城市对汽油的需求上。由于这座城市的规模和地理位置,华盛顿的人们有一个选择。很大一部分在华盛顿买汽油的人可以很容易地在邻近的马里兰州或弗吉尼亚州买到汽油。在华盛顿,汽油是一种狭义的商品,因此需求相当有弹性。价格的上涨将意味着天然气需求量的大幅下降。
我之所以提到这一点,是因为当华盛顿特区将每加仑汽油的税提高了8美分时,有人忘记了这一点,当时的增幅约为10%(这是我们在第124页关于计算弹性的讨论中的案例2)。作为回应,华盛顿的月汽油销售量从1600万加仑下降到不足1100万加仑,下降了40% !华盛顿对天然气的需求并非毫无弹性,就像整个美国一样;它非常有弹性$\左(E_D=4\右)$。华盛顿人去别处买汽油。
较小的地理区域有更多的弹性需求,这一事实限制了州和地方政府相对于邻近地区或州征收商品税的程度。在有税收差异的地方,新的商店沿着边境开,现有的商店扩大,以吸引人们越过边境来节省税收。例如,佛蒙特州的酒税比新罕布什尔州高,所以在佛蒙特州的边境对面,新罕布什尔州有大量的酒店也就不足为奇了。这里是最后一个例子:如果你看一下俄勒冈州简森海滩的车牌(就在华盛顿州边界对面),你会看到一大堆华盛顿州的车牌。为什么?如果你回答说这可能与华盛顿州和俄勒冈州的不同销售税有关,你就明白了。

经济代写|微观经济学代写Microeconomics代考 请认准statistics-lab™

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金融工程代写

金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题,以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。

非参数统计代写

非参数统计指的是一种统计方法,其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型;这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。

广义线性模型代考

广义线性模型(GLM)归属统计学领域,是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。

术语 广义线性模型(GLM)通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归,以及方差分析和方差分析(仅含固定效应)。

有限元方法代写

有限元方法(FEM)是一种流行的方法,用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。

有限元是一种通用的数值方法,用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程(即一些边界值问题)。为了解决一个问题,有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分,称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的,它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的:用于求解的数值域,它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统,以模拟整个问题。然后,有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。

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随机分析代写


随机微积分是数学的一个分支,对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。

时间序列分析代写

随机过程,是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体,参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现,其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值(如1秒,5分钟,12小时,7天,1年),因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中,往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录,以得到其自身发展的规律。

回归分析代写

多元回归分析渐进(Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics)属于计量经济学领域,主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法,可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系,在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中,其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括:数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发,包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统,其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题,尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题,而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问,这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展,得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中,它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域,MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要,工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数(M 文件)的综合集合,可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

R语言代写问卷设计与分析代写
PYTHON代写回归分析与线性模型代写
MATLAB代写方差分析与试验设计代写
STATA代写机器学习/统计学习代写
SPSS代写计量经济学代写
EVIEWS代写时间序列分析代写
EXCEL代写深度学习代写
SQL代写各种数据建模与可视化代写

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