## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|ECON3400

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写产业经济学Industrial Economics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写产业经济学Industrial Economics代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写产业经济学Industrial Economics相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|Product differentiation and the pricing of varieties

Consider consumers distributed uniformly over the unit circle with firms 1 and 2 in arbitrary locations, the shortest arc distance between them being $s$ (that is $s \leq 1 / 2$ ). In figure 7.6, firm 1 is located at $x=0$ and firm 2 at $x=s$. Suppose that firms have no production costs and that transportation costs are quadratic with coefficient $t$ and no linear term. (As explained in section 1, here transportation costs will be the costs associated with transforming a base product into a variety or specialized product.)

In the situation we have in mind each firm produces a base product, corresponding to its location in product space (the circle), and at the first stage it has to decide whether to (potentially) offer the whole array of varieties and price discriminate or just to offer the base product and therefore to price uniformly. In the latter case the supply of specialized varieties is left to outside independent producers which, we will assume, price competitively at cost. In any case, we assume that the costs of redesigning the base product increase quadratically with the distance at which the variety chosen is located. The first-stage choice could also be interpreted as a decision as whether to integrate forward or not. The base product could be a base chemical or steel and the varieties the specialized chemicals or steels. Whatever the interpretation, if a firm chooses to produce only the base product, then it will choose a uniform price, and if it chooses to offer the array of varieties, it will choose a price schedule when the market stage comes. As before we assume that in the mixed cases $(U, D)$ or $(D, U)$ the firm that prices uniformly moves first and therefore figure $7.2$ represents the game tree of our game. This may come about because this firm may need to advertise its price in order to get any sales (put advertisements in the newspapers, for example), whereas the price-discriminating firm may just announce that it will meet the competition (in any case to announce the whole price schedule in an intelligible way may be too complex and costly due to the large number of varieties).

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|Concluding remarks

We have examined the implications of letting firms choose their price policy in the context of a spatial competition model with given locations for firms. Either firms choose simultaneously price policy and actual prices, or firms may commit to a certain policy (uniform pricing) before the actual price competition takes place. The general conclusion is that there is a robust tendency for a firm to choose the discriminatory policy since it is more flexible and does better against any generic strategy of the rival, although, as we have seen in the models of section 3, firms may end up worse off than if they choose to price uniformly.

Furthermore, in those models, prices that consumers paid under uniform pricing were higher than under discriminatory pricing. This is not totally surprising: denying a firm the right to meet the price of a competitor on a discriminatory basis provides the latter with some protection against price attacks. The effect is then to weaken competition, contrary to the belief of the proponents of naive application of legislation prohibiting price discrimination like the Robinson-Patman Act in the United States, or similar recommendations of the Price Commission in the United Kingdom. Actually, as observed by Hoover:

The difference between market competition under FOB pricing (with strictly delineated market areas) and under discriminatory delivered pricing is something like the difference between trench warfare and guerrilla warfare. In the former case all the fighting takes place along a definite battle line; in the second case the opposing forces are intermingled over a broad area. (1948, p. 57)

Our results are short-run results since both the location and the number of firms are given. We know that the choice of a particular price policy leads to different long-run equilibrium patterns (see, for example, Greenhut et al., 1987, part III). When policy and prices are chosen simultaneously, Proposition 1 (that can be generalized to the case of any number of firms) indicates that, at the long-run equilibrium, firms will choose to price discriminate in the absence of institutional constraints. Thus, at the long-run equilibrium, uniform pricing would not be observed. Lederer and Hurter (1986) have shown that, with perfectly inelastic demand, two price-discriminating firms will locate in order to minimize total transportation costs.

.

## 有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

## MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|ECON3516

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写产业经济学Industrial Economics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写产业经济学Industrial Economics代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写产业经济学Industrial Economics相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|Commitment to a price policy

In this section we consider two-stage games in which firms may commit to a particular price policy, uniform pricing $(U)$, or may not commit at all and stay free to choose an unrestricted price schedule $(D)$ at the market competition stage (this involves price discrimination in general). ${ }^{10}$

In order to make the analysis tractable, we will restrict ourselves to simple cases in which consumers are uniformly distributed over some space $X$ (a segment or a circle) and each one of them has an inelastic demand for one unit of the good. Attention will be focused on subgame-perfect equilibria of the two-stage games in which firms anticipate the resulting Nash equilibria in prices at the second stage when choosing their price policies at the first stage. If one firm chooses uniform pricing and the other discriminatory pricing, there may not be a simultaneous move Nash equilibrium (in pure strategies) at the second stage. In what follows, we will assume that the firm which chooses to price uniformly will move first and be the price leader while the other firm will react optimally to the leader’s price. This situation fits the single-basing point pricing (BPP) system in spatial price competition and we will see that it has a natural interpretation in the context of product differentiation. We deal first with spatial price competition and the equilibrium analysis of the BPP system, and second with product differentiation and the pricing of varieties.

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|Spatial price competition and basing point pricing

We suppose now that consumers are uniformly distributed with a unit density on the interval $X=[0,1]$, with firm 1 located at 0 and firm 2 at 1 . Firms have constant marginal production costs and, without loss of generality, let them be 0 and $c \geq 0$ for firms 1 and 2 , respectively. Transportation costs are linear with slope $t(t>0)$.

Firms may commit to uniform pricing first and then compete on prices accordingly. Four possible cases may arise: $(U, U),(U, D),(D, U)$, or $(D, D)$. If both firms choose to price uniformly, $(U, U)$, then a Nash equilibrium in (FOB) prices obtains at the second stage. If both firms choose to keep complete freedom of pricing, $(D$, $D$ ), then a Nash equilibrium in price schedules obtains at the second stage. If firm 1 chooses to price uniformly and firm 2 does not commit, $(U, D)$, then firm 1 will be a price leader and firm 2 will react optimally to its price (figure $7.2$ depicts the game tree).

This is a natural competitive view of the BPP system with a single-basing point (in which firm 1 is located at $y_1-0$ ). The leader announces a uniform base price, and the price the consumer pays is just the base price plus the transportation cost from 0 to the location of the consumer no matter what firm serves the consumer. Given the base price set by the leader, firm 2 then just undercuts the corresponding full price wherever possible. In other words, the market area of firm 2 is defined by the set of locations for which firm 1’s full price is larger than the marginal production and transportation cost of firm 2. This is so because firm 1 is the first mover so that, for any posted price $p_i$, firm 2 can always capture the demand on $\left{x \in X ; P_1+t\left|y_1-x\right|>c+t\left|y_2-x\right|\right}$ by selling to consumers at $x-\varepsilon$ below firm 1’s full price (see figure $7.3$ where the market areas of firms 1 and 2 are given by $[0, \bar{x}] 0$ and $[\bar{x}, 1]$, respectively, when $\mathrm{c}=0) . .^{11}$ Firm 1 is, therefore, a price leader that sets a uniform FOB price and firm 2 reacts optimally to the leader’s base price by price discriminating. The case $(D, U)$ is similar. We have thus that the mixed cases $(U, D)$ and $(D, U)$ represent single BPP equilibria with base points 0 and 1, respectively. Our approach results in separated market areas and, therefore, no cross-hauling occurs, that is, there is no location where two-way trade is observed. 12

## 有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

## MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|ECON7400

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写产业经济学Industrial Economics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写产业经济学Industrial Economics代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写产业经济学Industrial Economics相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|The model

We consider two firms $i=1,2$ selling a homogeneous product. Firm $i$ is located at point $y_i$ of the $n$-dimensional space $\Re^{\prime \prime}$ (when the model is interpreted in the geographical context, we have $n=2$ ) and produces the product at a constant marginal cost $c_i$. It is supposed that firms are not located at the same point, that is, $y_1 \neq y_2$. Consumers are continuously distributed over a compact subset $X$ of $\Re^n$. The density of demand for the product at $x \in X$ is given by a (measurable) function $f(p$, $x$ ) of the full price $p$ (that is, the price gross of transportation costs) paid by the consumers, and of the location $x$. The transportation cost of one unit of the product is given by a strictly increasing non-negative function $t_i\left(|| y_i-x||\right)$ of the distance $\left|y_i-x\right|$, where $|$.$| is a norm defined on \Re^{\prime \prime}$ with $t_i(0)=0$. In the geographical context typically, because of scale economies in transportation, $t_i$ is a concave function of distance. Examples of norms that can be used are the Euclidean and the Manhattan norms. ${ }^6$

Two price policies are considered: uniform $(U)$ and discriminatory $(D)$. In the geographical context, uniform FOB pricing means that firm $i$ charges the same mill price $p_i$ to the consumers irrespective of their location. In this case, the full price of firm $i$ at $x \in X$ is equal to the mill price plus the transportation cost, that is, $p_i(x)=p_i+t_i\left(\left|y_i-x\right|\right)$. This is so, for instance, because the transportation is under the control of the consumers who use the services of independent carriers charging $t_i(\cdot)$ In the rest of the chapter, we refer to uniform FOB pricing as uniform pricing. ${ }^7$ Discriminatory pricing occurs when firm $i$ bears the transportation cost and chooses a price schedule $p_i(\cdot)$ which describes the delivered price $p_i(x)$ at which firm $i$ is willing to supply consumers at location $x \in X$. The full price of firm $i$ at $x$ is now given by $p_i(x)$. The mill price effectively paid by the consumers, that is, $p_i(x)-t_i\left(\left|y_i-x\right|\right)$, generally changes with their location $x$. In other words, the firm discriminates among consumers on the basis of their location.

When the model is interpreted as a model of product differentiation, uniform pricing is equivalent to firm $i$ ‘s selling a single product located at $y_i$ (in the characteristic space) and consumers paying a full price consisting of the price of the product plus the cost $t_i\left(\left|y_i-x\right|\right)$ incurred by the consumers in using the services of independent producers who adapt firm $i$ ‘s product to their requirements given by $x$. Now $t_i$ is better viewed as a convex function of distance. In the discriminatory case, firm $i$ bears the cost $t_i\left(\mid y_i-x |\right)$ of redesigning its basic product $\left(y_i\right)$ and offers the whole band of varieties. As product design is under its control, the firm may discriminate among consumers on the basis of their requirements. We say that price discrimination occurs when the price difference between two varieties does not correspond to the difference in the respective costs of redesigning the basic product.

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|Simultaneous choice of policy and price

In this section we investigate whether discriminatory or uniform pricing arises in equilibrium when firms choose simultaneously pricing policy and price, that is, when firms compete in price schedules which are unrestricted. A strategy for firm $i$ is then a price schedule $p_i(\cdot)$ that specifies the delivered price at which firm $i$ is willing to supply consumers at location $x$ in $X$. The delivered price at $x$ must cover the total (production plus transport) marginal cost. If firm $i$ were to price below total marginal cost it could do at least as well, for any given price of the rival, by pricing at marginal cost. Formally, we assume $p_i(\cdot)$ to be in the set
$P_i \equiv\left{p_i(\cdot)\right.$ a non-negative function defined on $X$, measurable and such that, for all $\left.x \in X, p_i(x) \geq c_i+t_i\left(| y_i-x||\right)\right}$.
The potential market area of firm $i$ is the set of locations at which the firm faces a positive demand density when pricing at total marginal cost $m_i(x) \equiv c_i+t_i\left(\left|y_i-x\right|\right)$, that is, $A_i \equiv\left{x \in X ; f\left[m_i(x), x\right]>0\right}$.

The most interesting case occurs when the set of consumers who consider buying from either firm, that is, $A_1 \cap A_2$, is non-negligible (technically a non-zero measure set). Since the product is homogeneous, each consumer purchases from the firm with the lower delivered price. In the event of a price tie, we assume that consumers do the socially optimal thing and buy from the firm with the lower production and transportation cost. This may be rationalized noting that this firm can always price $\varepsilon$ below its rival’s total marginal cost. If, for some consumer location $x$, both firms have the same total marginal costs and charge the same delivered price, they split the local demand. Generically, the set of locations for which $m_i(x)=m_j(x)$ is negligible. To ease notation we will assume this to be the case.

Given the strategies $p_i(\cdot)$ and $p_j(\cdot)$ of the two firms, the market area of firm $i$, $M_i\left(p_i(\cdot), p_j(\cdot)\right)$, is then the set of locations in the potential market area $A_i$ for which, either firm $i$ quotes the lower-delivered price or, if both firms quote the same price, firm $i$ has the lower-total marginal cost. Firm i’s profits are, therefore, equal to
$$\Pi_i\left(p_i(\cdot), p_j(\cdot)\right)=\int_{M_i\left(p_i(\cdot), p_j(\cdot)\right)}\left[p_i(x)-m_i(x)\right] \times f\left[p_i(x), x\right] d x$$

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写产业经济学代考|政策与价格的同时选择

.政策与价格的同时选择 在本节中，我们将研究当企业同时选择定价政策和价格时，即当企业在不受限制的价格表中竞争时，均衡中是否会出现歧视性定价或统一定价。企业$i$的策略是价格表$p_i(\cdot)$，其中规定了企业$i$愿意以何种价格向$X$中地址$x$的消费者提供产品。$x$上的交货价格必须包括总(生产加运输)边际成本。如果企业$i$的定价低于总边际成本，对于竞争对手的任何给定价格，它至少可以通过以边际成本定价来达到同样的效果。正式地，我们假设$p_i(\cdot)$在集合
$P_i \equiv\left{p_i(\cdot)\right.$一个在$X$上定义的非负函数，可测量，并且对于所有$\left.x \in X, p_i(x) \geq c_i+t_i\left(| y_i-x||\right)\right}$

$$\Pi_i\left(p_i(\cdot), p_j(\cdot)\right)=\int_{M_i\left(p_i(\cdot), p_j(\cdot)\right)}\left[p_i(x)-m_i(x)\right] \times f\left[p_i(x), x\right] d x$$

## 有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

## MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|ECON3400

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写产业经济学Industrial Economics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写产业经济学Industrial Economics代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写产业经济学Industrial Economics相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|Testable implications of the models

This study uses data on declining chemical products to test the predictions of the theoretical models. The fundamental question is the following: Is large firm size a strategic liability in a declining industry, and, if so, is this liability substantial enough to outweigh the cost advantage of achieving economies of scale? The liability of size could appear as higher exit rates for large firms (as implied by G\&N (1985) and Londregan (1987)) or as higher rates of incremental capacity reduction (as implied by G\&N, 1990 and Reynolds, 1988). If large and small size confer disadvantages of similar magnitude, the two liabilities might offset each other, so that comparable rates of divestment would be observed for both large and small firms.

The potential strategic liability of size is straightforward to detect if it appears as a higher rate of exit by larger firms. (Such a test is provided in section 4 below.) Less drastic forms of divestment are more difficult to assess, but I present several indicator measures in section 4. These include the rate of incremental capacity reduction, the rate of total divestment (exits and incremental reductions combined), and the change over time in the coefficient of variation in firm sizes.

The G\&N (1990) findings imply that as demand declines, capacity would gradually be shed by the largest firms. Producers with large capacity shares would therefore exhibit higher rates of incremental capacity reduction. But large producers may also show higher rates of incremental cutback for the simple reason that they tend to operate multiple plants. (Note that a plant closure constitutes an exit when made by a single-plant firm but an incremental reduction when made by a multi-plant firm.) To determine whether the strategic liability of large firm size is substantial enough to offset cost advantages due to economies of scale, it is necessary to examine the distribution of total divestment. If the liability of large firm size outweighs the benefits of achieving economies of scale, then large-share firms would account for a disproportionate fraction of the total capacity shed from the industry.

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|Evidence from prior empirical studies

Empirical evidence on the pattern of capacity reduction in declining industries has been developed primarily from case studies. Many studies have found higher rates of closure for small firms and plants, but only limited evidence has been presented on the strategic liability of large firm size. $G \& N(1985,1990)$ cite case studies of divestment in synthetic soda ash, steel castings, and basic steel. In all three of these industries, early capacity reductions were concentrated among the largest producers. ${ }^{2}$

Studies based on growing as well as declining industries have commonly found that smaller firms have higher exit probabilities. Mansfield (1962) uncovered this tendency in early work. Lieberman (1989) found that smaller entrants had significantly higher mortality rates in growing chemical markets. Evans (1987) and Dunne, Roberts, and Samuelson (1989b) confirmed this relation between exit and firm size using broad, cross-sectional data.

Similar findings have been obtained at the plant level. Deily (1988) and Tang (1989) noted that following the onset of industry decline, US steelmakers divested first from their smaller, high-cost plants. In petroleum refining, Londregan (1988) observed that small refineries were more likely to be closed. Dunne, Roberts, and Samuelson (1989a) found a similar pattern of plant closure in a range of industries.

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|Testable implications of the models

G\&N (1990) 的研究结果表明，随着需求的下降，最大的公司将逐渐失去产能。因此，拥有大容量份额的生产商将表现出更高的增量产能减少率。但大型生产商也可能表现出更高的增量削减率，原因很简单，他们倾向于经营多个工厂。（请注意，工厂关闭在单工厂公司时构成退出，但在多工厂公司时构成增量减少。）确定大型公司规模的战略责任是否足以抵消成本优势，因为规模经济，有必要考察总撤资的分布情况。如果大公司规模的责任超过了实现规模经济的好处，

## 有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

## MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|ECON3516

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写产业经济学Industrial Economics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写产业经济学Industrial Economics代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写产业经济学Industrial Economics相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

Whinston $(1987,1988)$ examines an oligopoly in which capacity is adjustable in lumps equal to plant size. In this framework he shows that it is difficult to reach any general conclusions about the pattern of plant closures. When each firm controls several differently sized plants, there is no theoretical prediction about the order of exit. There are several complications. A firm that withdraws a small plant now may be at a strategic disadvantage later if its remaining plants are large. Or a firm with many small plants may find this flexibility disadvantageous against a larger firm with one big plant. Thus, it is hard to separate out the effect of flexibility versus size. To focus on size alone, Whinston considers a special case when all plants are equally sized. There is still a complication; who moves first to break a tie between the two largest firms? The structured pattern of exit returns when the equilibrium play is independent of the tie-breaking rule (a quasi-markov equilibrium) – only the largest firms reduce capacity. Following the proof of theorem 1, we discuss the relationship between our results in greater detail.

In the present analysis we prefer to maintain the assumption of complete information: in the typical declining industry competitors are well acquainted, and the production technologies embodied in extant investments are common knowledge. The payoffs to allowing re-entry or stochastic demand trajectories are probably limited: the papers cited above suggest that smallness continues to be a competitive advantage with these generalizations.

We believe that there is a large payoff in extending the models of exit beyond the all-or-nothing production technology. Although such technologies characterize some industries with large, inflexible plants such as alumina refining (see Ghemawat and Nalebuff, 1985), firms usually shrink continuously as demand declines (soda ash, rayon, baby foods, vacuum tubes, cigars, and electric coffee percolators are some of the many examples: see Harrigan, 1980). We study competition under the opposite of all-or-nothing adjustment; we focus on production technologies where capacity is continuously adjustable. This allows us to model the effect of size differences without the complication of differential flexibility.

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|Theoretical studies

Recent theoretical studies of competition in declining industries include Ghemawat and Nalebuff (1985, 1990), Londregan (1987), Reynolds (1988), and Whinston (1988). These studies use the logic of backward induction to predict the sequence of exits or capacity reductions when demand is perceived as ultimately diminishing to zero. ${ }^{1}$ While the specific models differ slightly in their assumptions and results, all point out the potential strategic liability of large firm size.

Ghemawat and Nalebuff (1985) analyse the case in which producers have equal costs, demand is declining monotonically, and divestment is an all-or-nothing decision – firms either continue to operate at full capacity or exit the industry. Under these assumptions, Ghemawat and Nalebuff (hereafter G\&N) prove the existence of a unique subgame-perfect Cournot-Nash equilibrium: the smaller of two equally efficient duopolists forces its larger rival to exit as soon as duopoly profits turn negative. The intuition behind this result is that the smaller producer, having lower output, can operate as a profitable monopolist over a longer period of time as demand falls. Recognizing this fact, the larger firm exits first.

Generalized to the oligopoly case, the G\&N (1985) model implies that exit occurs in decreasing order of firm size. Ghemawat and Nalebuff argue that this sequence is robust to the existence of small interfirm cost differences. Moreover, the basic conclusions hold under more general conditions in which industry re-entry is permitted (Londregan, 1987).

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|Theoretical studies

Ghemawat 和 Nalebuff (1985) 分析了生产者成本相同、需求单调下降、撤资是一个全有或全无的决定的情况——公司要么继续满负荷运营，要么退出该行业。在这些假设下，Ghemawat 和 Nalebuff（以下简称 G\&N）证明了一个独特的子博弈完美 Cournot-Nash 均衡的存在：一旦双头垄断利润变为负数，两个同样有效的双头垄断者中较小的一个会迫使其较大的竞争对手退出。这一结果背后的直觉是，随着需求下降，产量较低的较小生产商可以在较长时间内作为盈利的垄断者运营。认识到这一事实，较大的公司首先退出。

## 有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

## MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|ECON7400

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写产业经济学Industrial Economics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写产业经济学Industrial Economics代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写产业经济学Industrial Economics相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|Licensing policy

Beginning in 1972, Du Pont received a ‘large number’ of enquiries about licensing, particularly from National Lead [CX 33C]. But Du Pont seemed to be aware of the implications of licensing for the pattern of capacity expansion in the industry (section 1.4.) and rejected domestic requests without even calculating the royalties that might be generated.

As predicted, overseas licensing presented a different picture. No requests for licences from European producers were entertained, presumably because of Du Pont’s interest in competing directly in the West European titanium dioxide market. But Du Pont carefully explored licence applications from countries outside its zone of interest – Brazil, China, Japan, and the USSR. The Japanese proposal advanced to the negotiating stage but was shelved in autumn 1977 because of weak demand [CX $180 \mathrm{E}]$

The remedy proposed by the FTC in the antitrust case that it brought against Du Pont in 1978 also agrees with our analysis. The FTC’s appeal brief [p. 65] notes that:
Royalty-free licensing would ‘break the chain’ of this pre-emptive process by immediately placing competitors in a position of cost parity with Du Pont . . Licensing with royalty fees would not be nearly as effective in upsetting the Du Pont ‘growth strategy’, since the effect of requiring royalty payments would be to maintain the Du Pont cost advantage over time. Competitors would continue to be at a cost disadvantage by the amount of royalty payment.

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|The devolution of declining industries

Models of dynamic competition generally take a rosy view of time: markets expand; better technologies become available; information improves. In this preoccupation with time as an engine of progress, environments in which time is an agent of regress have been shunted aside. Yet, declining industries form an important part of developed economies: more than 10 per cent of the United States’ 1977 manufacturing output was accounted for by industries whose real output had shrunk over the 1967-77 period.

In declining industries the important competitive moves pertain to disinvestment rather than investment. An industry facing decline must reduce its capacity in order to remain profitable. Capacity reduction, however, is a public good that must be provided privately. ${ }^{2}$ Each firm would like its competitors to shoulder the reduction: a firm may even maintain excess capacity – and sustain losses – in order to force competitors to withdraw sooner. The question arises: Who gives in first?

The timing game in a declining industry is therefore a war of attrition rather than a race to pre-empt. In the original model of the war of attrition (Maynard Smith, 1974), each competitor chooses between continuing to ‘fight’ at a pre-specified level of intensity or conceding; the competitor that hangs in the longest wins the prize. Ghemawat and Nalebuff (1985) applied this model, with its dichotomous choice, to declining industries by restricting production to be an all-or-nothing decision for each firm. This chapter, in sharp contrast, allows firms greater strategic flexibility by letting them continuously adjust their capacities as demand declines.

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|Licensing policy

FTC 在 1978 年对杜邦提起的反垄断案中提出的补救措施也与我们的分析一致。FTC 的上诉摘要 [p. 65] 指出：

## 有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

## MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|ECON3400

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写产业经济学Industrial Economics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写产业经济学Industrial Economics代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写产业经济学Industrial Economics相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|Non-collusive price equilibria

A large majority of economists – in my personal experience – think that if sellers announce, post or publish their (non-collusive) prices, they therefore use Bertrand strategies and thereby reveal that the Bertrand model is the appropriate one to use. Some even go as far as to argue that the Bertrand model has descriptive value. In my opinion, this reasoning is mistaken and results from a misunderstanding of the Cournot model. I shall indeed argue that it makes perfect sense to use Cournot strategies to explain real-world pricing.

Let us have a closer look at Sutton’s example of a Cournot subgame (presented above in section 1.2). Market demand is $X=S / p$. There are $N$ identical firms, selling a homogeneous good, with profit function
$$\Pi_{i}=(p-c) x_{i}$$
where $p=S / X$. Let $X=X_{-i}+x_{i}$, where $X_{-i}$ is the sum of the outputs of all $i$ ‘s rivals. Then this profit function becomes
$$\Pi_{i}=\left(\frac{S}{X_{-i}+x_{i}}-c\right) x_{i}$$
and
$$\frac{\partial \Pi_{i}}{\partial x_{i}}=\frac{-S x_{i}}{\left(X_{-i}+x_{i}\right)^{2}}+\frac{S}{X_{-i}+x_{i}}-c=0$$
are the first-order conditions. Because of the symmetry assumption, $x_{i}=x$ for all $i$ and these conditions become $$\frac{-S x}{(N x)^{2}}+\frac{S}{N x}-c=0$$
or
$$\frac{S(N-1)}{N^{2} x}=c$$
or
$$x=\frac{S}{c} \cdot \frac{N-1}{N^{2}}$$
implying
$$X=N x=\frac{S(N-1)}{c N} .$$

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|Pricing schemes

Before tackling their collusive aspect, I want to describe the functioning of a few pricing schemes that are frequently observed.

The Monopolies and Mergers Commission noted in its 1986 report on white salt that over the period under investigation the price of the two UK producers followed a pattern of ‘parallel pricing’. Every time there was a price change, one of the firms announced it while the other firm followed within a couple of weeks with an identical change. You might expect the bigger of the two firms to have been the price leader, but that was not the case: the smaller firm led eight times and the bigger firm led only five times. Notice that whoever took the initiative for a price change, informed the competitor a month in advance, and the latter would then inform the leader of a proposed identical change within that month. This is perhaps the most straightforward example of a pricing scheme as defined by d’Aspremont $e t$ al. (1991). There being only two firms and one taking over the price of the other, there is no need, really, to compute an average price. But the logic is the same: price signals, that is, announced prices are turned into one single price valid for all competitors.

The theoretical underpinning of the experiment on parallel pricing conducted by Harstad, Martin, and Normann (see chapter 6) is taken from MacLeod (1985), who supposes that $n$ firms follow a custom (called a ‘social convention’) which is to react to an announcement of a price change (by any competitor) according to an alignment rule. This rule says that firm $j$ should adopt price changes equal to those announced by $i$, whoever $i$ is. MacLeod applies this rule to differentiated as well as homogeneous goods, while d’Aspremont et al. (1991) consider only the original Cournot case of a homogeneous good, for which the producers must charge the same price in equilibrium. That is why the experiment is based on the assumption that the experimental subjects sell differentiated commodities.

MacLeod imagines the following strategy: (1) when a price increase is announced by a competitor, follow it if it is profitable to do so and if the others do the same; otherwise, do not change your price; (2) when a price decrease is announced by a competitor, follow it as long as it does not lead to prices lower than the prices that would obtain in a static non-collusive Nash equilibrium; (3) if any rival firm does not behave according to (1) and (2), announce the static non-cooperative Nash equilibrium price. Then there exists a non-cooperative equilibrium with prices higher than the noncollusive Nash prices but lower than those which would maximize the joint profit.

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|Non-collusive price equilibria

$$\Pi_{i}=(p-c) x_{i}$$

$$\Pi_{i}=\left(\frac{S}{X_{-i}+x_{i}}-c\right) x_{i}$$

$$\frac{\partial \Pi_{i}}{\partial x_{i}}=\frac{-S x_{i}}{\left(X_{-i}+x_{i}\right)^{2}}+\frac{S}{X_{-i}+x_{i}}-c=0$$

$$\frac{-S x}{(N x)^{2}}+\frac{S}{N x}-c=0$$

$$\frac{S(N-1)}{N^{2} x}=c$$

$$x=\frac{S}{c} \cdot \frac{N-1}{N^{2}}$$

$$X=N x=\frac{S(N-1)}{c N} .$$

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|Pricing schemes

Harstad、Martin 和 Normann（见第 6 章）进行的平行定价实验的理论基础取自 MacLeod（1985），他假设n公司遵循一种习惯（称为“社会惯例”），即根据对齐规则对（任何竞争对手）宣布的价格变化做出反应。这条规则说，公司j应采用与政府公布的价格变化相等的价格变化一世, 谁一世是。MacLeod 将此规则应用于差异化商品和同质商品，而 d’Aspremont 等人。(1991) 只考虑同质商品的原始古诺案例，生产者必须在均衡时收取相同的价格。这就是为什么实验是基于实验对象销售差异化商品的假设。

MacLeod 设想了以下策略：（1）当竞争对手宣布提价时，如果这样做有利可图，并且其他人也这样做，则遵循它；否则，请勿更改您的价格；(2) 当竞争对手宣布降价时，只要它不会导致价格低于静态非共谋纳什均衡中的价格，就跟随它；(3) 如果任何竞争企业不按照(1)和(2)的行为，公布静态非合作纳什均衡价格。然后存在一个非合作均衡，其价格高于非共谋纳什价格，但低于使联合利润最大化的价格。

## 有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

## MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|ECON3516

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写产业经济学Industrial Economics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写产业经济学Industrial Economics代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写产业经济学Industrial Economics相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|Endogenous sunk costs

In Sutton’s terminology, endogenous sunk costs are those incurred with a view to enhancing consumers’ willingness-to-pay for a specific firm’s product. Implicit is the assumption that there are quality differences (or vertical differentiation) which the firms want to advertise or develop. So these costs are (mainly) advertising and R\&D costs. They increase with $u$, an index of perceived quality. On the consumers’ side, their willingness-to-pay is a non-decreasing function of $u$. Markets with these characteristics are what Schmalensee calls type II markets in chapter $2 .$

The natural thing to do is to take the two-stage game discussed above and insert an intermediate stage in which the firms that decided to enter (at cost $\sigma)$ in the first stage choose a value of $u$ (and therefore an advertising level or an R\&D effort) at a sunk cost $A(u)$ to be added to $\sigma$. In the third stage, then, the vector $\left{u_{i}\right}$ is given and firms compete (à la Cournot for example).

If advertising leads to sufficient increases in demand, then firms will increase their advertising costs $A(u)$ and thus increase total sunk costs $\sigma+A(u)$. Such an escalation of costs raises the equilibrium level of total sunk costs, which has now become endogenous. The end result is that there will not be room in the market for more and more firms as market size increases: market structure does not become more and more fragmented as $S$ increases, in sharp contradiction with type I markets.

All this hinges on the degree of demand responsiveness faced by the individual firms to increases in their advertising or $\mathrm{R} \& \mathrm{D}$ outlays or, in terms of costs, on the returns to these outlays. Sutton (1991, chapter 3 ) uses the convenient specification
$$A(u)=\frac{a}{\gamma}\left(u^{\gamma}-1\right), \quad \gamma>1 .$$
Putting $u=1$, we have $A(1)=0$ and $A^{\prime}(1)=a$. So a small initial outlay at $u=1$ produces a return corresponding to an expense $a$, which is the cost per message. On the other hand, a higher $\gamma$ implies more rapidly diminishing returns. The total fixed outlays function (which can thus be interpreted as the advertising response function) is then
$$\sigma+\frac{a}{\gamma}\left(u^{\gamma}-1\right) .$$

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|Dynamics of market expansion and contraction

Chapters 3,4 , and 5 look into the dynamics of how market structure changes over time. The two preceding chapters showed how to determine the equilibrium number of firms $N^{}$. Now the problem is to figure out how $N$ is going to be increased when $N}$, for example when market demand is expanding and the potential producers have come to the conclusion that there is room for additional capacity. The alternative problem is to take the case of a contracting industry in which the producers have come to the conclusion that $N>N^{*}$ and to ask how the industry’s capacity is going to be reduced.

Both cases will be studied with the help of a so-called ‘timing’ game, that is, a game in which the players have to decide at what point in time they will do something. In the case of two players, they have to decide for example who will be first to make an announcement, to decide, to start producing or whatever. Our problem is: which firm will be first to invest in new capacity when demand expands and to close down or divest when demand contracts over time.

In chapter 3 , Ghemawat tells the story of Du Pont’s capacity expansion strategy in the US titanium dioxide industry and shows that it accords with the predictions of a timing game between two firms. Firm 1’s cost of constructing a new plant is lower than firm 2’s. These two firms are participating in a public auction ${ }^{6}$ in which they alternate in making bids about the dates at which they are willing to add capacity between time 0 and time $T$. One firm makes the first bid promising to add new capacity at time $t_{j}^{}$. If the other firm does not announce an earlier date before the end of the auction, that’s it. Alternatively, the other firm can announce that it will invest earlier in period $t_{j}^{}-s$, and thus ‘undercut’ the previous bid. This undercutting goes on as long as the resulting additional profit covers the cost of adding capacity. This profit is the present value of the profits that will be made as of the point in time at which the undercutter would add capacity if he were not undercut himself. Who will be the first to stop this bidding? The first player for which this profit is smaller than the cost of adding capacity (discounted to the present). This must be firm 2: the firm with higher capacity costs will be the first to stop bidding. Consequently, the low-cost firm will find it profitable to pre-empt the others in adding new capacity.

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|Endogenous sunk costs

$$A(u)=\frac{a}{\gamma}\left(u^{\gamma}-1\right), \quad \gamma>1 .$$

$$\sigma+\frac{a}{\gamma}\left(u^{\gamma}-1\right) .$$

## 有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

## MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|ECON7400

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写产业经济学Industrial Economics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写产业经济学Industrial Economics代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写产业经济学Industrial Economics相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|A two-stage game

Why suppose that this game has two stages? Why not suppose that the investments in setting up the equilibrium number of firms and the degree of competition are determined in a one-stage (‘one-shot’) game? The formulation of this question is possibly a bit confusing, in that it may suggest that the two-stage game is solved in two successive steps. So let me emphasize right from the start that the players of such a game solve its successive ‘subgames’ or steps before the game is actually started, as is the case with a one-shot game. (We shall see a bit later how the solution is found.)

The advantage, then, of distinguishing two stages is to disentangle the long-run and the short-run aspects of the problem without separating them. The first step, in which the investments or disinvestments (by entry into or by exit from the industry) are decided, is the long-run aspect of the problem. The second step, in which the profits that motivate the entries or the exits are determined, is the short-run aspect. The latter determines the former. But the former is ‘long-run’, since it is more difficult to change an investment decision than to change a price.

Since my undergraduate days, I have struggled with the distinction between the short run and the long run, which I encountered for the first time in Alfred Marshall’s Principles (1952, book V, chapter V, section 6). I quote:

To sum up then as regards short periods. The supply of specialized skill and ability, of suitable machinery and other material capital, and of the appropriate industrial organization has not time to be fully adapted to demand; but the producers have to adjust their supply to the demand as best they can with the appliances already at their disposal … In long periods on the other hand all investments of capital and effort in providing the material plant and the organization of a business, and in acquiring trade knowledge and specialized ability, have to be adjusted to the incomes which are expected to be earned by them: and the estimates of these incomes therefore directly govern supply.

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|Exogenous sunk costs

Salt is a homogeneous commodity. So there is no point in organizing advertising campaigns to promote a particular brand nor is there in investing in $\mathrm{R} \& \mathrm{D}$ outlays to improve the quality of salt. In the absence of fixed costs for advertising and $R \& D$, the only fixed costs salt producers have to care about are the costs of setting up their plant. These costs $(\sigma)$ are exogenously given to them and cannot be recovered: they are sunk costs and therefore play no role in the day-to-day pricing policy.

To be more precise, $\sigma$ is the cost of acquiring a single plant of minimum efficient scale, net of resale value. In the first stage of the game, the entry decision is taken at this cost $\sigma$, which is treated as a fixed parameter in the second stage (so that prices do not depend directly on it). To justify entry, $\sigma$ must be recovered ex post, so entry decisions depend on the interplay between $\sigma$ and the intensity of competition. If competition turns out to be too intensive, then some existing plants have to be closed. (To make sure that the second-stage equilibrium prices are compatible with $\sigma$ and the corresponding market structure, the game is solved backwards as explained above. However, once the game is actually played and circumstances change, inconsistency may indeed arise and lead to a restructuring of the industry.)

Sutton (1991, chapter 2) constructs the following example. Suppose market demand can be specified as $X=S / p$ where $X$ is the total quantity of salt demanded and $p$ is its price, so that $S$ is the total expenditure on salt. $S$ can thus be interpreted as the size of the market, while the price elasticity is supposed to be $-1$. (This specification has the advantage that we can make the market for salt grow or decline by simply letting the parameter $S$ grow or decline.) Suppose also that there is a price $p_{0}$ above which sales are zero.

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|Exogenous sunk costs

Sutton（1991 年，第 2 章）构建了以下示例。假设市场需求可以指定为X=小号/p在哪里X是盐需求的总量，并且p是它的价格，所以小号是盐的总支出。小号因此可以解释为市场规模，而价格弹性应该是−1. （这个规范的优点是我们可以通过简单地让参数让盐的市场增长或下降小号增长或下降。）还假设有一个价格p0高于此销售额为零。

## 有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

## MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|ECON4438

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写产业经济学Industrial Economics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写产业经济学Industrial Economics代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写产业经济学Industrial Economics相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|Continue to Deepen Supply-Side Reform and Stimulate New Vitality of Industrial Growth

The supply-side reform’s emphasis on decisive roles of market in resource allocation aims to release new demands and create new supplies; on the one hand, market is supposed to release overcapacity and create new economic growth points, and on the other, the use is made of innovation to form effective supplies with higher quality and stimulate new demands. The supply-side reform is a specific remedy for the currently existing economic issues in China, a new method for China’s economic reform and an effective action to vitalize industrial growth.
Firstly, we need to focus on release of excess capacity and elimination of “zombie” enterprises. The existing excess capacity, “zombie” and loss-making enterprises and low-efficiency or even inefficient assets are consuming huge quantity of resources and hinder transformation and upgrading of industrial structure. The Central Economic Working Conference stated expressly that top priority of supply-side structural reform in 2016 would be given to active and prudent dissolution of excess capacity and release of valuable resource elements from enterprises featuring severely excess capacity and limited space for growth and the “zombie” enterprises so as to improve effective supply and create new productivity by straightening out the supply side. To dissolve excess capacity, the Central Government, local government, authorities and enterprises must exercise strict control over incremental productive capacity. In particular, the local government is not supposed to increase investment blindly for local economic development or follow the suit simply because of huge potential in emerging industrials; instead, it should solve this problem at its source. The existing excess productive capacities may be dissolved by carrying out structural optimization or adjustment, promoting enterprise reorganization and M\&A, improving inventory warning mechanism and perform real-time monitoring over change in business inventories. Further solutions include: creating external demands and encouraging “go out” of China’s industrial capital to promote capacity output under the opportunity of the Belt and Road Initiative, accelerating reform of liberalization of production elements, breaking the government-led distribution mode of land and resources, giving full play to the regulating roles of market mechanism, and guiding allocation of capital and labor in all industrial sectors so as to dissolve excess capacity. As excess capacity is a systematic and long-term issue requiring both short-term administrative intervention and long-term governance according to the law, we need to improve the system of policy, laws and regulations for dissolution of excess capacity, and give full play to fiscal, financial and tax roles in the de-capacity process; accelerate consolidation, reorganization or bankruptcy of “zombie” enterprises or low-efficiency and inefficient assets, and make reasonable relocation of personnel and disposal of assets; actively guide upstream and downstream industrial organizations of the “zombie” enterprises to transform into high value added segments, or accept merging and reorganization of competitive industrial enterprises; and perfect the delisting mechanism of “zombie” enterprises to make adjustment and optimization of industrial structure, providing that the ecological equilibrium of these industrial organizations are maintained.

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|Expand Effective Demands and Further Exploit

Firstly, we need to make endeavors to promote supply-side reform, but it does not necessarily mean the quit of demand management; instead, implementation of the supply-side reform requires appropriate enlargement of aggregate demands; the supply-side reform and the demand management should promote and cooperate with each other. Since 2015 , obstructions have emerged in economic growth measures through expansion of investment and net export volume. The stabilizing and rising consumer goods market is unable to drive industrial growth, but the explosion of various emerging industries due to implementation of the innovation-driven strategy has brought about new possibilities for consumption and investment; as a result, the scale effect was replaced by consumption upgrading and investment efficiency in promoting industrial growth. In addition, the implementation of various regional strategies has provided unprecedented demand space for consumption and trade. In the second quarter of 2016 , more effective demands were exploited to promote industrial growth.

Secondly, we need to expand and upgrade consumption. On the one hand, we should focus on development of new technologies and new products, encourage innovation of commercial forms, create new demands by means of new supply, and direct consumers towards intelligent, green and healthy consumption. As the “imitative” consumption period comes to an end, individualized and diversified demand has become the mainstream consumption pattern; therefore, in addition to effort in new commercial forms, we need to make efforts on improvement product quality and grade to accommodate consumers’ individualized demands of products, and push consumption towards some new industries. On the other hand, we need to expand consumers’ demands by virtue of inter-regional collaboration strategies. As China’s economy develops, the consumption potentialities in central and western regions have been exploited to some extent. The current inter-regional collaboration strategy plays an important role in promoting consumption in the underdeveloped central and western regions. The “Yangtze River Economic Belt” is a significant action of China’s combination of regional coordination and opening up in the new period. This is an unprecedented policy that links together the eastern, central and western regions, and also a solid step to promote construction of inland economic belts. The western region of China is covered by the Belt and Road Initiative while the developed eastern region will take active part in the strategy by economic ties with central and western regions, and will promote inter-regional interactions through market force. All these will further exploit the consumption potentialities in the central and western regions. Meanwhile, “people foremost” is core to the new-type urbanization; more and more production factors such as rural population, information, capital and technologies that are flooding into cities will generate huge aggregation effect and scale effect in these cities to achieve better development of production factors market, especially the labor market; besides, rural laborers will get better paid in cities and will also improve incomes of urban residents and promote upgrading of consumption structure. Therefore, urbanization is an important means to expand consumption and promote consumption upgrading while the construction of the “Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei integration” and “Yangtze River Economic Belt” provides infinite opportunity for new-type urbanization. The inter-regional connection of public services, social insurance system and transportation will become the main market for future urbanization. To stimulate consumption, we need to make the best of inter-regional collaborative strategy to drive urbanization in the central and western regions; besides, we need to take active measures to optimize consumption environment, standardize market competition to facilitate transition of market competition from quantitative expansion and price competition to quality and differentiation competition, promote service-oriented development of manufacturing enterprises, protect consumers’ rights and interests, accelerate infrastructure construction in the field of consumer goods, and implement the “broadband China” strategy.

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|International Industries in the First Half of 2016

In the first half of 2016 , the world economy was still subject to a deep adjustment period after the financial crisis. Global manufacturing PMI index dropped from $50.1 \%$ in April to $50 \%$ in May 2016 . The industrial economics of major economies recovered slowly in a zigzag way and unevenly in main countries and regions, indicated significant uncertainty in industrial economics operation. In general, developed economies recovered faster than emerging economies did.

A weak recovery continued in developed countries, such as European countries and the United States. The American economy operated fairly well. Due to trade and government investment in consumption that offset slump in consumption, the year-on-year growth rate of American economy was modified to rise by $1.1 \%$, higher than the desired value and the last modified value. The American people’s confidence in economy was enhanced by the constantly recovering labor market, the higher employment rate and lower price index. The bounce-off of consumer spending in the second quarter will further promote American GDP growth. In addition, the American industrial production improved markedly. The overall production index (seasonally adjusted) entered year-on-year positive growth status, and the manufacturing PMI has climbed above the threshold since March 2016 , which kept ascending on a monthly basis in the first half year and hit a new high in June, so its manufacturing industry was expected to flourish; due to external environment’s influence, however, the American trade volume remained in sharp fluctuations, for which there was still large space for improvement. The Eurozone economy recovered slowly, with first quarter’s GDP growth rate higher than was expected. The Eurozone industrial production also recovered persistently. The manufacturing PMI in June was the highest this year, which indicated a recovering trend of Eurozone industry. Currently, the inflation pressure was slightly alleviated and generally better than market expectation, and the inflation that had lasted for four months eventually carne to an end in June. Eurozone saw a good trend of employment as the unemployment rates kept descending; due to British referendum on departure from the EU and its external environment, however, the Eurozone trade was not as optimistic as expected. Japan suffered a slow economic recovery,

regardless of its first quarter’s GDP growth rate higher than was expected. Other data indicated that Japanese economy remains flat and that continual fluctuations occurred in its industrial output, e.g. PMI in March stayed below the threshold, inflation risk remained and import/export trade volume kept shrinking.

Among major emerging economies, Brazil’s economy and industrial production continued shrinking, but the shrinking amplitude slowed down dramatically; despite a slight decline in the second quarter, Brazil’s PMI remained below the threshold in the first half of 2016 , with a rising unemployment rate and inflation. In the first quarter, South Africa’s economic growth rate went down significantly; the growth rate of industrial production fluctuated drastically; though the PMI began recovering up to the threshold in March, there was still uncertainty in its economic recovery as its inflation deteriorated and foreign trade fluctuated obviously. In comparison, India’s economy recovered more steadily, regardless of its sluggish industrial growth. In the first quarter of 2016 , India’s GDP grew $7.95 \%$ year on year, higher than the average of all quarters in 2015 , indicating a better recovering trend of India’s economy. Since the year of 2016 , India’s PMI maintained above the threshold; the decreasing amplitude of its foreign trade kept going down and improving steadily. Due to the declining international oil price, Russia’s economy continued with the downturn; industrial production remained sluggish, regardless of a slightly positive turnabout. In the first half of 2016 , Russia’s PMI basically remained below the threshold; the unemployment rate went up somewhat, but the inflation went down markedly and foreign trade improved to some extent. It was clear that as compared with developed economies, major emerging economies were faced with a more difficult problem in economic recovery. In the first half of 2016 , the general economic situation of developed economies seemed much better than aforesaid emerging economies.

## 经济代写|产业经济学代写Industrial Economics代考|International Industries in the First Half of 2016

2016年上半年，世界经济仍处于金融危机后的深度调整期。全球制造业 PMI 指数从50.1%四月至50%2016 年 5 月。主要经济体产业经济回升缓慢，主要国家和地区呈现曲折态势，反映产业经济运行存在较大不确定性。总体而言，发达经济体的复苏速度快于新兴经济体。

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## MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。