经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|EC4505

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写宏观经济学Macroeconomics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写宏观经济学Macroeconomics代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写宏观经济学Macroeconomics相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|The decentralized equilibrium

Here we present a discrete time model initially developed by Diamond (1965), building on earlier work by Samuelson (1958), in which individuals live for two periods (young and old). The economy lasts forever as new young people enter in every period. We first characterise the decentralised competitive equilibrium of the model. We then ask whether the market solution is the same as the allocation that would be chosen by a central planner, focusing on the significance of the golden rule, which will allow us to discuss the possibility of dynamic inefficiency (i.e. excessive capital accumulation).

The market economy is composed of individuals and firms. Individuals live for two periods. They work for firms, receiving a wage. They also lend their savings to firms, receiving a rental rate.
An individual born at time $t$ consumes $c_{1 t}$ in period $t$ and $c_{2 t+1}$ in period $t+1$, and derives utility
$$\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sigma-1}\right) c_{1 \mathrm{t}}^{\frac{\sigma-1}{\sigma}}+(1+\rho)^{-1}\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sigma-1}\right) c_{2 f+1}^{\frac{\sigma-1}{\sigma}}, \rho \geq 0, \sigma \geq 0 .$$
Note that the subscript ” 1 ” refers to consumption when young, and ” 2 ” labels consumption when old. Individuals work only in the first period of life, inelastically supplying one unit of labour and earning a real wage of $w_t$. They consume part of their first-period income and save the rest to finance their second-period retirement consumption. The saving of the young in period $t$ generates the capital stock that is used to produce output in period $t+1$ in combination with the labour supplied by the young generation of period $t+1$.
The time structure of the model appears in Figure 8.1.
The number of individuals born at time $t$ and working in period $t$ is $L_t$. Population grows at rate $n$ so that $L_t=L_0(1+n)^t$.

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Individuals

Consider an individual born at time $t$. His maximisation problem is
$$\max \left{\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sigma-1}\right) c_{1 t}^{\frac{\sigma-1}{\sigma}}+(1+\rho)^{-1}\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sigma-1}\right) c_{2 t+1}^{\frac{\sigma-1}{\sigma}}\right}$$
subject to
$$c_{1 t}+s_t=w_t,$$
$$c_{2 t+1}=\left(1+r_{t+1}\right) s_t,$$
where $w_t$ is the wage received in period $t$ and $r_{t+1}$ is the interest rate paid on savings held from period $t$ to period $t+1$. In the second period the individual consumes all his wealth, both interest and principal. (Note that this assumes that there is no altruism across generations, in that people do not care about leaving bequests to the coming generations. This is crucial.)
The first-order condition for a maximum is
$$c_{1 t}^{-\frac{1}{\sigma}}-\left(\frac{1+r_{t+1}}{1+\rho}\right) c_{2 t+1}^{-\frac{1}{\sigma}}=0,$$
which can be rewritten as
$$\frac{c_{2 t+1}}{c_{1 t}}=\left(\frac{1+r_{t+1}}{1+\rho}\right)^\sigma \text {. }$$
This is the Euler equation for the generation born at time $t$. Note that this has the very same intuition, in discrete time, as the Euler equation (Ramsey rule) we derived in the context of the NGM.
Next, using (8.3) and (8.4) to substitute out for $c_{1 t}$ and $c_{2 t+1}$ and rearranging we get
$$s_t=\left(\frac{1}{\left(1+r_{t+1}\right)^{1-\sigma}(1+\rho)^\sigma+1}\right) w_t .$$
We can think of this as a saving function:
$$s_t=s\left(w_t, r_{t+1}\right), \quad 0<s_w \equiv \frac{\partial s_t}{\partial w_t}<1, s_r \equiv \frac{\partial s_t}{\partial r_{t+1}} \geq 0 \text { or } \leq 0 .$$
Saving is an increasing function of wage income since the assumption of separability and concavity of the utility function ensures that both goods (i.e. consumption in both periods) are normal. The effect of an increase in the interest rate is ambiguous, however, because of the standard income and substitution effects with which you are familiar from micro theory. An increase in the interest rate decreases the relative price of second-period consumption, leading individuals to shift consumption from the first to the second period, that is, to substitute second- for first-period consumption. But it also increases the feasible consumption set, making it possible to increase consumption in both periods; this is the income effect. The net effect of these substitution and income effects is ambiguous. If the elasticity of substitution between consumption in both periods is greater than one, then in this two-period model the substitution effect dominates and an increase in interest rates leads to an increase in saving.

经济代写|宏观经济学代写宏观经济学代考|分散均衡

$$\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sigma-1}\right) c_{1 \mathrm{t}}^{\frac{\sigma-1}{\sigma}}+(1+\rho)^{-1}\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sigma-1}\right) c_{2 f+1}^{\frac{\sigma-1}{\sigma}}, \rho \geq 0, \sigma \geq 0 .$$

经济代写|宏观经济学代写宏观经济学代考|个人

$$\max \left{\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sigma-1}\right) c_{1 t}^{\frac{\sigma-1}{\sigma}}+(1+\rho)^{-1}\left(\frac{\sigma}{\sigma-1}\right) c_{2 t+1}^{\frac{\sigma-1}{\sigma}}\right}$$

$$c_{1 t}+s_t=w_t,$$
$$c_{2 t+1}=\left(1+r_{t+1}\right) s_t,$$
，其中$w_t$是在$t$期间收到的工资，$r_{t+1}$是在$t$至$t+1$期间持有的储蓄支付的利率。在第二阶段，个人消费他所有的财富，包括利息和本金。(请注意，这是假设没有跨代的利他主义，即人们不关心给下一代留下遗产。

$$c_{1 t}^{-\frac{1}{\sigma}}-\left(\frac{1+r_{t+1}}{1+\rho}\right) c_{2 t+1}^{-\frac{1}{\sigma}}=0,$$
，可以改写为
$$\frac{c_{2 t+1}}{c_{1 t}}=\left(\frac{1+r_{t+1}}{1+\rho}\right)^\sigma \text {. }$$

$$s_t=\left(\frac{1}{\left(1+r_{t+1}\right)^{1-\sigma}(1+\rho)^\sigma+1}\right) w_t .$$

$$s_t=s\left(w_t, r_{t+1}\right), \quad 0<s_w \equiv \frac{\partial s_t}{\partial w_t}<1, s_r \equiv \frac{\partial s_t}{\partial r_{t+1}} \geq 0 \text { or } \leq 0 .$$

有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|ECON6002

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写宏观经济学Macroeconomics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写宏观经济学Macroeconomics代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写宏观经济学Macroeconomics相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Institutions

Last but not least, there is the view that institutions are a fundamental source of economic growth. This idea also has an old pedigree in economics, but in modern times it has been mostly associated, in its beginnings, with the work of Douglass North (who won the Nobel Prize for his work), and more recently with scholars such as Daron Acemoglu and James Robinson. From the very beginning, here is the million-dollar question: what do we mean by institutions?

North’s famous characterisation is that institutions are “the rules of the game” in a society, “the humanly devised constraints that shape human interaction” (North (1990), p. 3). Here are the key elements of his argument:

• Humanly devised: Unlike geography, institutions are chosen by groups of human beings.
• Constraints: Institutions are about placing constraints on human behaviour. Once a rule is imposed, there is a cost to breaking it.
• Shape interactions: Institutions affect incentives.
OK, fair enough. But here is the real question: What exactly do we mean by institutions? A first stab at this question is to follow the Acemoglu et al. (2005) distinctions between economic and political institutions, and between de facto and de jure institutions.

The first distinction is as follows. Economic institutions are those that directly affect the economic incentives: property rights, the presence and shape of market interactions, and regulations. They are obviously important for economic growth, as they constitute the set of incentives for accumulation and technological progress. Political institutions are those that configure the process by which society makes choices: electoral systems, constitutions, the nature of political regimes, the allocation of political power etc. There is clearly an intimate connection between those two types, as political power affects the economic rules that will prevail.

The second distinction is just as important, having to do with formal vs informal rules. For instance, the law may state that all citizens have the right to vote, but in practice it might be that certain groups can have enough resources (military or otherwise) to intimidate or influence others, thereby constraining their right in practice. Formal rules, the de jure institutions, are never enough to fully characterise the rules of the game; the informal, de facto rules must be taken into consideration.

These distinctions help us structure the concepts, but we also hit the same issue that plagues the cultural explanations: since institutions are made by people, we need to understand where they come from, and how they come about. Acemoglu et al. (2005) is a great starting point to survey this literature, and (Acemoglu and Robinson 2012) provides an extremely readable overview of the ideas.

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|What have we learned

When it comes to the proximate causes of growth, in spite of the limitations of each specific empirical approach – growth accounting, regression methods, and calibration – the message from the data is reasonably clear, yet nuanced: factor accumulation can arguably explain a substantial amount of income differences, and specific growth episodes, but ultimately differences in productivity are very important. This is a bit daunting, since the fact is that we don’t really understand what productivity is, in a deeper sense. Still, it underscores the importance of the process of technological progress – and the policy issues raised in Chapter 6 – as a primary locus for growth policies.

How about the fundamental causes? There is certainly a role for geography and luck (multiple equilibria), but our reading of the literature is that culture and institutions play a key part. There remains a lot to be learned about how these things evolve, and how they affect outcomes, and these are bound to be active areas of research for the foreseeable future.

Once again, the growth textbook by Acemoglu (2009) is a superb resource, and it contains a more in-depth discussion of the empirical literature on the proximate causes of growth. It also has a very interesting discussion on the fundamental causes, but it’s useful to keep in mind that, its author being one of the leading proponents of the view that institutions matter most, it certainly comes at that debate from that specific point of view.

Specifically on culture, the best places to go next are the survey articles we mentioned in our discussion. The survey by Guiso et al. (2006) is a bit outdated, of course, but still a great starting point. The more recent surveys by Alesina and Giuliano (2015), focusing particularly on the links between culture and institutions, and by Nunn (2020), focusing on the work using historical data, are very good guides to where the literature is and is going.

On institutions, there is no better place to go next than the books by Acemoglu and Robinson (2012) and Acemoglu and Robinson (2019). They are very ambitious intellectual exercises, encompassing theory, history, and empirical evidence, and meant for a broad audience – which makes them a fun and engaging read.

These being very active research fields, there are a lot of questions that remain open. Anyone interested in the social sciences, as the readers of this book most likely are, will find a lot of food for thought in these sources.

有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|ECOS3007

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写宏观经济学Macroeconomics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写宏观经济学Macroeconomics代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写宏观经济学Macroeconomics相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Geography

This is somewhat related to the luck hypothesis, but certainly distinctive: perhaps the deepest source of heterogeneity between countries is the natural environment they happened to be endowed with. From a very big picture perspective, geographical happenstance of this sort is a very plausible candidate for a determinant of broad development paths, as argued for instance by Jarred Diamond in his 1999 Pulitzer-Prize-winning book Guns, Germs and Steel ${ }^8$. As an example, Diamond suggests that one key reason Europe conquered America, and not the other way around, was that Europe had an endowment of big animal species that were relatively easy to domesticate, which in turn led to improved immunisation by humans exposed to animal-borne diseases, and more technological advances. But can geography also explain differences in economic performance at the scale on which we usually think about them, say between different countries over decades or even a couple of centuries?

On some level, it is hard to think that the natural environment would not affect economic performance, on any time frame. Whether a country is in the middle of the Sahara desert, the Amazon rain forest, or some temperate climate zone must make some difference for the set of economic opportunities that it faces. This idea becomes more compelling when we look at the correlation between certain geographical variables and economic performance, as illustrated by the Figure (7.2), again taken from Acemoglu (2009). It is clear from that picture that countries that are closer to the equator are poorer on average. At the very least, any explanation for economic performance would have to be consistent with this stylised fact. The question, once again, is to assess to what extent these geographical differences underlie the ultimate performance, and this is not an easy empirical question.

Let us start by considering the possible conceptual arguments. The earliest version of the geography hypothesis has to do with the effect of the climate on the effort – the old idea that hot climates are not conducive to hard work. While this seems very naive (and not too politically correct) to our 21 st century ears, the idea that climate (and geography more broadly) affects technological productivity, especially in agriculture, still sounds very plausible. If these initial differences in turn condition subsequent technological progress (as argued by Jared Diamond, as we have seen, and as we will see, in different forms, by Jeffrey Sachs), it just might be that geography is the ultimate determinant of the divergence between societies over the very long run.

A big issue with this modern version of the geography hypothesis is that it is much more appealing to think of geography affecting agricultural productivity, but modern growth seems to have a lot more to do with industrialisation. While productivity in agriculture might have conditioned the development of industry to begin with, once industrial technologies are developed we would have to explain why they are not adopted by some countries. Geography is probably not enough to account for that, at least in this version of the story.

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Culture

What do we mean by culture? The standard definition used by economists, as spelled out by Guiso et al. (2006), refers to “those customary beliefs and values that ethnic, religious, and social groups transmit fairly unchanged from generation to generation” (p. 23). In other words, culture is something that lives inside people’s heads – as opposed to being external to them – but it is not something idiosyncratic to individuals; it is built and, importantly, transmitted at the level of groups.

It is hard to argue against the assertion that people’s beliefs, values, and attitudes affect their economic decisions. It is just as clear that those beliefs, values and attitudes vary across countries (and over time). From this it is easy to conclude that culture matters for economic performance, an argument that goes back at least to Max Weber’s thesis that Protestant beliefs and values, emphasising hard work and thrift, and with a positive view of wealth accumulation as a signal of God’s grace, were an important factor behind the development of capitalism and the modern industrial development. In his words, the “Protestant ethic” lies behind the “spirit of capitalism”.

Other arguments in the same vein have suggested that certain cultural traits are more conducive to economic growth than others (David Landes is a particularly prominent proponent of this view, as in Landes (1998)), and the distribution of those traits across countries is the key variable to ultimately understand growth. “Anglo-Saxon” values are growth-promoting, compared to “Latin” or “Asian” values, and so on. More recently, Joel Mokyr (2018) has argued that Enlightenment culture was the key driving force behind the emergence of the Industrial Revolution in Europe, and hence of the so-called “Great Divergence” between that continent and the rest of the world.

A number of issues arise with such explanations. First, culture is hard to measure, and as such may lead us into the realm of tautology. A country is rich because of its favourable culture, and a favourable culture is defined as that which is held by rich countries. This doesn’t get us very far in understanding the causes of good economic performance. This circularity is particularly disturbing when the same set of values (say, Confucianism) is considered inimical to growth when Asian countries perform poorly, and suddenly becomes growth-enhancing when the same countries perform well. Second, even if culture is indeed an important causal determinant of growth, we still need to figure out where it comes from if we are to consider implications for policy and predictions for future outcomes.

These empirical and conceptual challenges have now been addressed more systematically, as better data on cultural attitudes have emerged. With such data, a vibrant literature has emerged, with economists developing theories and testing their predictions on the role that specific types of values (as opposed to a generic “culture” umbrella) play in determining economic performance. Many different types of cultural attitudes have been investigated: trust, collectivism, gender roles, beliefs about fairness, etc. This literature has often exploited historical episodes – the slave trade, the formation of medieval self-governing cities, colonisation, immigration, recessions – and specific cultural practices – religious rites, civic festivities, family arrangements – to shed light on the evolution of cultural attitudes and their impact on economic outcomes. Our assessment is that this avenue of research has already borne a lot of fruit, and remains very promising for the future. (For an overview of this literature, see the surveys by Guiso et al. (2006), Alesina and Giuliano (2015), and Nunn (2020).

有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|ECON1120

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写宏观经济学Macroeconomics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写宏观经济学Macroeconomics代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写宏观经济学Macroeconomics相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Balanced growth path

You will recall that a BGP is a situation where all variables grow at a constant rate. From (5.12) and (5.13) (and in the absence of technological progress), we see that constant $\gamma_k$ and $\gamma_h$ require, respectively ${ }^2$,
$$\begin{gathered} (\alpha-1) \gamma_k+\beta \gamma_h=0 \ \alpha \gamma_k+(\beta-1) \gamma_h=0 . \end{gathered}$$
Substituting the second equation into the first equation yields
$$\frac{1-\alpha-\beta}{1-\beta} \gamma_k=0 .$$
But given CRS, we have assumed that $\alpha+\beta<1$, so we must have $\gamma_k=\gamma_h=0$. In other words, just as before, without technical progress ( $A$ constant), this model features constant per-capita capital $k$ and constant per-capita human capital $h$. No growth again! Of course, we can obtain long-run growth again by assuming exogenous (labour-augmenting) technological progress, $\frac{A}{A}=g$. Consider a BGP in which $\frac{k}{k}$ and $\frac{h}{h}$ are constant over time. From (5.12) and (5.13), this requires that $\frac{k}{y}$ and $\frac{h}{y}$ be constant over time. Consequently, if a BGP exists, $y, k$, and $h$, must all be increasing at the same rate. When the production function exhibits CRS, this BGP can be achieved by setting $\frac{\dot{y}}{y}=\frac{k}{k}=\frac{h}{h}=g^3$ The longrun growth rate is thus independent of $s_k, s_h, n$ or anything that policy affects, unless $g$ is endogenised somehow. (But again, long-run levels of income do depend on these behavioural parameters.)

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Still looking for endogenous growth

Why is the long-run growth rate still pinned down by the exogenous rate of technological growth as in the Solow Model? CRS implies that the marginal products of $K$ and $H$ decline as these factors accumulate, tending to hring growth rates down. Morenver, Cohh-Douglas production functions satisfy the Inada conditions so that, in the limit, these marginal products asymptotically go to 0 . In other words, CRS still keeps us in the domain of diminishing returns to capital accumulation, regardless of the fact that we have introduced human capital!

How can we change the model to make long-run growth rates endogenous (i.e., potentially responsive to policy)? You should see immediately from (5.16) that there is a possibility for a BGP, with $\gamma_k$ and $\gamma_h$ different from zero: if $\alpha+\beta=1$. That is to say, if we have constant returns to capital and human capital, the reproducible factors, taken together.
It is easy to see, from (5.12) and (5.13), that in a BGP we must have
$$\frac{\dot{k}}{k}=\frac{\dot{h}}{h} \longrightarrow \frac{k^}{h^}=\frac{s_k}{s_h} .$$

In other words, in a BGP $k$ and $h$ must grow at the same rate. This is possible since diminishing returns does not set in to either factor $(\alpha+\beta=1)$. What rate of growth is this? Using (5.17) in (5.12) and (5.13) we obtain (normalizing $A=1$ for simplicity)
$$\frac{\dot{k}}{k}=\frac{\dot{h}}{h}=s_h\left(\frac{s_k}{s_h}\right)^a-(\delta+n)=s_k^a s_h^{1-\alpha}-(\delta+n) .$$
The long-run (BGP) growth rate of output is
$$\frac{\dot{y}}{y}=\alpha \frac{\dot{k}}{k}+(1-\alpha) \frac{\dot{h}}{h}=s_k^a s_h^{1-\alpha}-(\delta+n) .$$
Now $s_k, s_h$ do affect long-run growth. If policy affects these, then policy affects growth. For instance, increasing the savings rates leads to higher growth in the long run. In other words, when we have human capital and constant returns to reproducible factors of production, it is possible to explain longrun growth (see Figure 5.1).

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Balanced growth path

$$(\alpha-1) \gamma_k+\beta \gamma_h=0 \alpha \gamma_k+(\beta-1) \gamma_h=0 .$$

$$\frac{1-\alpha-\beta}{1-\beta} \gamma_k=0$$

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Still looking for endogenous growth

$$\frac{\dot{k}}{k}=\frac{\dot{h}}{h}=s_h\left(\frac{s_k}{s_h}\right)^a-(\delta+n)=s_k^a s_h^{1-\alpha}-(\delta+n) .$$

$$\frac{\dot{y}}{y}=\alpha \frac{\dot{k}}{k}+(1-\alpha) \frac{\dot{h}}{h}=s_k^a s_h^{1-\alpha}-(\delta+n) .$$

有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|ECON6002

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写宏观经济学Macroeconomics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写宏观经济学Macroeconomics代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写宏观经济学Macroeconomics相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Productivity shocks and the current account

Suppose the economy initially has total factor productivity $A^H$, with corresponding optimal stock of capital $\left(k^\right)^H$ and consumption level $\left(c^\right)^H$. At time 0 there is an unanticipated and permanent fall in productivity from $A^H$ to $A^L$, where $A^L<A^H$ (maybe because this economy produced oil, guano, or diamonds and its price has come down). This means, from (4.28), that $z(A)$ falls from $z\left(A^H\right)$ to $z\left(A^L\right)$. Capital holdings are reduced: residents sell capital in exchange for bonds, so after the shock they have $\left(k^\right)^L<\left(k^\right)^H$, where $\left(k^\right)^H$ was the optimal stock of capital before the shock. Assets $a_0$ are unchanged on impact. From (4.29) it follows that consumption adjusts instantaneously to its new (and lower) value: $$\left(c^\right)^L=r a_0-(1-\alpha) z\left(A^L\right)<r a_0-(1-\alpha) z\left(A^H\right)=\left(c^*\right)^H \text {, for all } t \geq 0 .$$
What happens to the current account? After the instantaneous shock, assets remain unchanged, and $\dot{b}_t$ is zero. The economy immediately converges to the new BGP, where the current account is in balance.

At this point, you must be really disappointed: don’t we ever get any interesting current account dynamics from this model? Actually, we do! Consider a transitory fall in productivity at time 0 , from $A^H$ to $A^L$, with productivity eventually returning to $A^H$ after some time $T$. Well, it should be clear that consumption will fall, but not as much as in the permanent case. You want to smooth consumption, and you understand that things will get back to normal in the future, so you don’t have to bring it down so much now. At the same time, the capital stock does adjust down fully, otherwise its return would be below what the domestic household could get from bonds. If current output falls just as in the permanent case, but consumption falls by less, where is the difference? A simple inspection of (4.9) reveals that $\dot{b}$ has to fall below zero: it’s a current-account deficit! Quite simply, residents can smooth consumption, in spite of the negative shock, by borrowing resources from abroad. Once the shock reverts, the current account returns to zero, while consumption remains unchanged. In the new BGP, consumption will remain lower relative to its initial level, and the difference will pay for the interest incurred on the debt accumulated over the duration of the shock – or more generally, the reduction in net foreign asset income.
‘This example underscores the role of the current account as a mechanism through which an economy can adjust to shocks. It also highlights one feature that we will see over and over again: the optimal response and resulting dynamics can be very different depending on whether a shock is permanent or transitory.

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Sovereign wealth funds

This stylised model actually allows us to think of other simple policy responses. Imagine a country that has a finite stock of resources, like copper. ${ }^4$ Furthermore let’s imagine that this stock of copper is being extracted in a way that it will disappear in a finite amount of time. The optimal program is to consume the net present value of the copper over the infinite future. So, as the stock of copper declines the economy should use those resources to accumulate other assets. This is the fiscal surplus rule implemented by Chile to compensate for the depletion of their resources. In fact, Chile also has a rule to identify transitory from permanent shocks, with the implication that all transitory increases (decreases) in the price level have to be saved (spent).

Does this provide a rationale for some other sovereign wealth funds? The discussion above suggests that a country should consume:
$$r \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} R_t e^{-r t} d t,$$
where $R$ is the value of the resources extracted in period $t$. This equation says that a country should value its intertemporal resources (which are the equivalent of the $a_0$ above, an initial stock of assets), and consume the real return on it.

Is that how actual sovereign funds work? Well, the Norwegian sovereign fund rule, for instance, does not do this. Their rule is to spend at time $t$ the real return of the assets accumulated until then:
$$r \int_{-\infty}^t R_t e^{-r(s-t)} d s$$
This rule san only be rationalised if you expest no further dissoveries and reat sach uew dissovery as a surprise. Alternatively, one could assume that the future is very uncertain, so one does not want to commit debt ahead of time. (We will come back to this precautionary savings idea in our study of consumption in Chapter 11.) In any event, the key lesson is that studying our stylised models can help clarify the logic of existing policies, and where and why they depart from our basic assumptions.

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Productivity shocks and the current account

‘这个例子强调了经常账户作为经济体可以调整中击的机制的作用。它还强调了我们将一遍又一遍地看到的一个特 征：最佳响应和产生的动态可能会因冲击是永久性的还是暂时的而有很大不同。

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Sovereign wealth funds

$$r \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} R_t e^{-r t} d t$$

$$r \int_{-\infty}^t R_t e^{-r(s-t)} d s$$

有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|ECOS3007

statistics-lab™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在代写宏观经济学Macroeconomics方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的统计Statistics代写服务。我们的专家在代写宏观经济学Macroeconomics代写方面经验极为丰富，各种代写宏观经济学Macroeconomics相关的作业也就用不着说。

• Statistical Inference 统计推断
• Statistical Computing 统计计算
• (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
• Statistical Machine Learning 统计机器学习
• Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
• Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|The steady state consumption and current account

Now that you have the level of income you should be able to compute the level of consumption. How do we do that? By solving the differential equation that is the budget constraint (4.9), which we can rewrite as
$$\dot{a}_t-r a_t=f\left(k^\right)-r k^-c^,$$ using the solutions for optimal consumption and capital stock. Using our strategy of integrating factors, we can multiply both sides by $e^{-r t}$, and integrate the resulting equation between 0 and $t$ : $$a_t e^{-r t}-a_0=\frac{c^+r k^-f\left(k^\right)}{r}\left(e^{-r t}-1\right) .$$
Now evaluate this equation as $t \rightarrow \infty$. Considering the NPC and the TVC, it follows that:
$$c^=r a_0+f\left(k^\right)-r k^* .$$
We can also find the optimal level of debt at each time period. It is easy to see that $a_t$ is kept constant at $a_0$, from which it follows that $b_t=b_0+k_0-k^*$. The current account is zero. In other words, the NGM delivers a growth model with no growth, as we saw in the last chapter, and a model of the current account dynamics without current account surpluses or deficits.

Not so fast, though! We saw that the NGM did have predictions for growth outside of the BGP. Let’s look at the transitional dynamics here as well, and see what we can learn.

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|The inexistence of transitional dynamics

There are no transitional dynamics in this model: output per capita converges instantaneously to that of the rest of the world!

Suppose that initial conditions are $k_0<k^$ and $b_0>0$. But, condition (4.19) says that capital must always be equal to $k^$. Hence, in the first instant, capital must jump up from $k_0$ to $k^*$. How is this accomplished? Domestic residents purchase the necessary quantity of capital (the single good) abroad and instantaneously install it. Put differently, the speed of adjustment is infinite.

How do the domestic residents pay for this new capital? By drawing down their holdings of the bond. If $\Delta k_0=k^-k_0$, then $\Delta b_0=-\Delta k_0=-\left(k^-k_0\right)$. Note that this transaction does not affect initial net national assets, since
$$\Delta a_0=\Delta k_0+\Delta b_0=\Delta k_0-\Delta k_0=0 .$$

Suppose now that the production function is given by
$$f\left(k_t\right)=A k_t^a, A>0,0 \leq \alpha \leq 1 .$$
This means that condition (4.19) is
$$\alpha A\left(k^\right)^{\alpha-1}=r$$ so that the level of capital on the BGP is $$k^=\left(\frac{\alpha A}{r}\right)^{\frac{1}{1-\alpha}},$$
which is increasing in $A$ and decreasing in $r$.
Using this solution for the capital stock we can write $y^$ as $$y^=A k^{* \alpha}=A\left(\frac{\alpha A}{r}\right)^{\frac{\alpha}{1-\alpha}}=A^{\frac{1}{1-\alpha}}\left(\frac{\alpha}{r}\right)^{\frac{a}{1-\alpha}} \equiv z(A),$$
with $z(A)$ increasing in $A$.
It follows that consumption can be written as
$$c^=r u_0-r k^+z(A)=r u_0+(1-\alpha) z(A),$$
with $z^{\prime}(A)>0$.

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|The steady state consumption and current account

$c^{\wedge}=r^{\prime} a_{-} 0+f$ lleft(k^\ight) $-\mathrm{k}^{\wedge} \mathrm{k}^{\star}$

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|The inexistence of transitional dynamics

$$c^{=} r u_0-r k^{+} z(A)=r u_0+(1-\alpha) z(A)$$

有限元方法代写

tatistics-lab作为专业的留学生服务机构，多年来已为美国、英国、加拿大、澳洲等留学热门地的学生提供专业的学术服务，包括但不限于Essay代写，Assignment代写，Dissertation代写，Report代写，小组作业代写，Proposal代写，Paper代写，Presentation代写，计算机作业代写，论文修改和润色，网课代做，exam代考等等。写作范围涵盖高中，本科，研究生等海外留学全阶段，辐射金融，经济学，会计学，审计学，管理学等全球99%专业科目。写作团队既有专业英语母语作者，也有海外名校硕博留学生，每位写作老师都拥有过硬的语言能力，专业的学科背景和学术写作经验。我们承诺100%原创，100%专业，100%准时，100%满意。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。