经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Macro-Dynamics Rising to the Challenge of Instability

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宏观经济学,对国家或地区经济整体行为的研究。它关注的是了解整个经济的事件,如商品和服务的生产总量、失业水平和价格的一般行为。

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  • Statistical Inference 统计推断
  • Statistical Computing 统计计算
  • Advanced Probability Theory 高等概率论
  • Advanced Mathematical Statistics 高等数理统计学
  • (Generalized) Linear Models 广义线性模型
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  • Longitudinal Data Analysis 纵向数据分析
  • Foundations of Data Science 数据科学基础

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Macro-Dynamics Rising to the Challenge of Instability

The idea that instability in the capitalist system of production was so severe that it could lead to a complete collapse of the economic system reflected a series of circumstances specific to the early 1930s. How influential was Tinbergen on other econometricians in proposing in his models this radical interpretation of instability?
Tinbergen was not alone to work on that issue. In 1934, Frisch also seriously considered the possibility of collapse, quite paradoxically because he is often thought of as the apostle of stable linear models (see Chap. 4). In 1935, discussions arising around nonlinear models at the Namur meeting of the Econometric Society showed however that Frisch sought to reinforce the idea that self-stabilizing mechanisms may fail to kick in, which meant that an appropriate political response was necessary.
A first illustration of this is found in Frisch’s 1934 work published in Econometrica in the form of a long monograph on “circulation planning” in which Frisch argued that besides “technical features” related to production, there exists other features related to the “circulation and exchange activity.” These features of a capitalistic economy may be responsible for other movements of the economy and the maladjustments between wants and production. ${ }^{26}$ As the Great Depression continued to have a lasting impact in Europe, Frisch thought that this type of approach was more appropriate to account for the ongoing situation and in particular the possibility that the groups composing the economy could involuntarily undermine each other’s position with the risk of pushing the economy into a never ending recession, due to a lack of information.

In several respects, the model used by Frisch was close to the model that Tinbergen developed in his 1932 pre-advice (Tinbergen, 1932). In both cases, the analysis highlighted the interdependencies between two firms (or two groups in Frisch’s case), but while Tinbergen was interested in emphasizing the possibility of two stable equilibria, a low and a high one, Frisch wanted to show the possibility that the economy may have two opposite “intrinsic tendencies towards contraction and expansion” (Frisch, 1934: 261).

Frisch developed a model in which the two groups which composed the economy exchanged at regular intervals of time, the purchasing power of each group depending on the volume of its sales to the other group in the previous period (each group being assumed to buy the goods he does not produce at constant prices). In the simplest case, Frisch assumed that the amount bought by a group is proportional to the amount of goods the other group managed to sell in the previous period, as expressed by these two equations:
$$
\begin{aligned}
& a_t=\alpha b_{t-1}, \
& b_t=\beta a_{t-1},
\end{aligned}
$$
where $a_t$ and $b_t$ are the amounts bought by the two groups respectively at time $t$ and $\alpha$ and $\beta$ are constants representing the sensitivity of the amount of goods produced. Frisch related those coefficients to the degree of optimism or pessimism of both groups depending on the situation.

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Business Cycles, Pump-Priming

Tinbergen’s macro-dynamic work presented in Chap. 6, and the models developed by Frisch and Kalecki presented in Chaps. 4 and 5 relied on similar notions of equilibrium and stability. While they all shared a common understanding of these notions, their visions of economic instability clearly differed from each other. Tinbergen perceived the presence of highly unstable processes in the economy, and he represented their importance, especially for economic policies, in different models produced around 1933-1935, before he moved on to the large macroeconometric models that made his worldwide reputation. As we have seen, the idea that large shocks could have potentially devastating effects by throwing the economy outside of its stability zone showed the way for economic policy, which could act both as a countershock and by strengthening the economic structure by increasing the size of its region of stability.

On the other hand, we saw in Chap. 4 that Frisch’s model was characterized by his strong stability properties; it was a linear model with a built-in stabilizing mechanism that ensured that a boom or depression could not last for too long. In this approach, shocks were a necessary part of the explanation as they led to the revival of the damped fluctuations in the economy, and their erratic character led to an asymmetry in the different periods of the cycle which was closer to the observed reality than the purely sinusoidal solution of second degree equations. In addition, Frisch’s model conveyed the idea that an economy may grow even at the costs of recurrent downturns. Kalecki’s approach formed a third vision of instability: the idea of an endless cycle around a position of equilibrium with no possibility of growth. This idea was also present in Tinbergen’s work in the form of self-sustained cycles within the stability region, but Kalecki had been quickly convinced that in his linear model it formed an unreasonable assumption.

Thus the models developed by the econometricians were more than mere tools paving the way for future research; they were both the consequence of different conceptions of the capitalistic and industrial world and acted back on those conceptions when they offered new insights on the processes of this world. Thus, understanding the debates around these models offers us a picture of the changing visions of instability and fluctuations that reflected changes in the economic world.

They relied however on different economic explanations which converged only episodically; Tinbergen’s models were driven at first by discrepancies between demand and supply, and then by the dynamics of profits and by speculation. Kalecki’s approach also relied on the dynamics of profits which varied as the stock of capital in the economy changed, and his 1935 model also integrated a crucial lag of production which explained the inertia of the system and its perpetual fluctuations, but was based on a theory of effective demand. In Frisch’s model, the movement of the economy was explained by the interrelation of consumption and investment via an acceleration relationship and the inertia of current production. Although there was a monetary check on expansion which ensured the stability of his system, it should also be noted that most of their models relied on “real” explanations of the business cycle. In fact Tinbergen actively rejected the role of the interest rate in the economy, which he discussed in reference to the main monetary theories of business cycles developed by Hayek during this period.

宏观经济学代考

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Macro-Dynamics Rising to the Challenge of Instability

资本主义生产体系的不稳定性如此严重以至于可能导致经济体系彻底崩溃的想法反映了 20 世纪 30 年代初期的一系列特定情况。丁伯根在他的模型中提出这种对不稳定性的激进解释,对其他计量经济学家有多大影响?
廷伯根并不是唯一一个致力于解决这个问题的人。1934 年,Frisch 也认真考虑了崩溃的可能性,这很矛盾,因为他通常被认为是稳定线性模型的倡导者(见第 4 章)。1935 年,计量经济学会在那慕尔会议上围绕非线性模型展开的讨论表明,弗里施试图强化自稳定机制可能无法发挥作用的观点,这意味着需要采取适当的政治回应。
Frisch 1934 年在 Econometrica 上以长篇专着的形式发表了这方面的第一个例证,其中 Frisch 认为除了与生产相关的“技术特征”外,还存在与“流通和交流活动。” 资本主义经济的这些特征可能会导致经济的其他运动以及需求与生产之间的失调。26随着大萧条继续对欧洲产生持久影响,Frisch 认为这种方法更适合解释当前的情况,特别是构成经济的群体可能不由自主地破坏彼此地位的风险由于缺乏信息,将经济推向永无止境的衰退。

在几个方面,Frisch 使用的模型接近于 Tinbergen 在他 1932 年的预先建议中开发的模型 (Tinbergen, 1932)。在这两种情况下,分析都强调了两家公司(或 Frisch 案例中的两个集团)之间的相互依存关系,但是虽然 Tinbergen 有兴趣强调两个稳定均衡的可能性,一个低平衡和一个高平衡,但 Frisch 想表明这种可能性经济可能有两种相反的“收缩和扩张的内在趋势”(Frisch,1934:261)。

Frisch 开发了一个模型,其中构成经济的两个群体定期交换,每个群体的购买力取决于其在前一时期对另一群体的销售量(假设每个群体购买商品他不以不变的价格生产)。在最简单的情况下,Frisch 假设一组人购买的数量与另一组人在前一时期设法出售的商品数量成正比,如以下两个方程式所示:

A吨=Ab吨−1, b吨=bA吨−1,
在哪里A吨和b吨分别是两组在某时刻购买的数量吨和A和b是代表商品生产量敏感性的常数。弗里施根据情况将这些系数与两组人的乐观或悲观程度联系起来。

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Business Cycles, Pump-Priming

丁伯根的宏观动态工作在第 1 章中介绍。6,以及 Frisch 和 Kalecki 开发的模型在 Chaps 中展示。4 和 5 依赖于类似的平衡和稳定性概念。尽管他们对这些概念都有共同的理解,但他们对经济不稳定的看法显然彼此不同。丁伯根察觉到经济中存在高度不稳定的过程,他在 1933 年至 1935 年左右制作的不同模型中展示了这些过程的重要性,尤其是对经济政策的重要性,之后他转向了令他享誉全球的大型宏观计量模型。正如我们所见,大的冲击可能通过将经济抛出其稳定区而产生潜在的破坏性影响的想法为经济政策指明了方向,

另一方面,我们在章节中看到了。4 Frisch 模型的特点是稳定性强;它是一个带有内置稳定机制的线性模型,可确保繁荣或萧条不会持续太久。在这种方法中,冲击是解释的必要组成部分,因为它们导致经济中受抑制的波动的复苏,并且它们的不稳定特性导致周期不同时期的不对称性,这比观察到的现实更接近现实。二阶方程的纯正弦解。此外,Frisch 的模型传达了这样一种观点,即经济即使以周期性衰退为代价也可能增长。Kalecki 的方法形成了不稳定性的第三种观点:围绕平衡位置的无限循环的想法,没有增长的可能性。

因此,计量经济学家开发的模型不仅仅是为未来研究铺平道路的工具;它们都是对资本主义和工业世界的不同概念的结果,并且在它们对这个世界的进程提供新的见解时对这些概念作出反击。因此,了解围绕这些模型的争论可以让我们了解反映经济世界变化的不稳定和波动的变化愿景。

然而,他们依赖于不同的经济解释,这些解释只是偶尔会聚在一起;Tinbergen 的模型最初是由供需差异驱动的,然后是利润的动态变化和投机活动。Kalecki 的方法还依赖于随着经济中资本存量的变化而变化的利润动态,他 1935 年的模型也整合了一个关键的生产滞后,它解释了系统的惯性和它的永久波动,但基于一个理论的有效需求。在 Frisch 的模型中,经济运动可以通过加速关系和当前生产的惯性,通过消费和投资的相互关系来解释。尽管对扩张进行了货币检查以确保其系统的稳定性,还应该指出的是,他们的大多数模型都依赖于对商业周期的“真实”解释。事实上,丁伯根积极拒绝利率在经济中的作用,他在讨论时参考了哈耶克在此期间发展的主要商业周期货币理论。

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金融工程代写

金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题,以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。

非参数统计代写

非参数统计指的是一种统计方法,其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型;这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。

广义线性模型代考

广义线性模型(GLM)归属统计学领域,是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。

术语 广义线性模型(GLM)通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归,以及方差分析和方差分析(仅含固定效应)。

有限元方法代写

有限元方法(FEM)是一种流行的方法,用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。

有限元是一种通用的数值方法,用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程(即一些边界值问题)。为了解决一个问题,有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分,称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的,它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的:用于求解的数值域,它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统,以模拟整个问题。然后,有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。

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随机分析代写


随机微积分是数学的一个分支,对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。

时间序列分析代写

随机过程,是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体,参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现,其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值(如1秒,5分钟,12小时,7天,1年),因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中,往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录,以得到其自身发展的规律。

回归分析代写

多元回归分析渐进(Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics)属于计量经济学领域,主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法,可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系,在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中,其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括:数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发,包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统,其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题,尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题,而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问,这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展,得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中,它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域,MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要,工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数(M 文件)的综合集合,可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

R语言代写问卷设计与分析代写
PYTHON代写回归分析与线性模型代写
MATLAB代写方差分析与试验设计代写
STATA代写机器学习/统计学习代写
SPSS代写计量经济学代写
EVIEWS代写时间序列分析代写
EXCEL代写深度学习代写
SQL代写各种数据建模与可视化代写

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