经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Tinbergen’s Analysis of the Multiplier

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宏观经济学,对国家或地区经济整体行为的研究。它关注的是了解整个经济的事件,如商品和服务的生产总量、失业水平和价格的一般行为。

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  • Statistical Computing 统计计算
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经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Tinbergen’s Analysis of the Multiplier

The problem of economic policies formed a central part of Tinbergen’s analysis from the onset of his interest in economic questions, as we have already underlined in Chap. 6. Tinbergen had applied his first models to a wide range of questions from wage policies to raw goods and tried to elucidate the mechanisms deemed the most important. After 1935, he began to build and estimate larger models that culminated in the publication of his two-volume study for the League of Nations Tinbergen $(1939 \mathrm{a}, \mathrm{b})$. Discussions of the best economic policies formed a central part of those larger models, and the importance of these works for the development of economic analysis has been underlined many times. ${ }^2$

While these models had a profound impact on the discipline, we will not treat them in this book because they provide little information on the question of the stability of the economy. Instead, we would like to pay attention to other models developed at the same time by Tinbergen, which he used to answer topical questions and to bring a new perspective on problems often marred by the lack of complete formalisations. A case in point is the treatment by Tinbergen of the multiplier, which he developed in a 1937 paper published in the Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv (Tinbergen, 1937c). The meaningfulness of this paper lies in his theoretical conclusions for economic policies and the light it threw on the possibility of “pump-priming,” which was a subject of important debates in the USA at the same time.

The multiplier had been developed by Keynes and Kahn in the early 1930s (Kahn, 1931, Keynes, 1933). ${ }^3$ In its simplest form, the idea was that a certain expenditure in the economy can lead to primary effects arising from the spending of the initial expenditure, but also to secondary effects when the workers receiving the primary wave spend their new income in the economy. Kahn’s approach, summarized by Tinbergen, was to argue that when a portion $k$ of the new income $I$ is spent, at a period $n$ after the initial expenditure, the new portion is equal to $k^n$. The addition of each additional income $k I+k^2 I+\cdots+k^n I$ formed a geometric series $\frac{I}{1-k}$, where $\frac{1}{1-k}$ is the Keynesian multiplier. For Tinbergen, this analysis was particularly interesting because it brought forward dynamic considerations, but this remained too crude to really inform economic policies.

Tinbergen believed that this neglected some important influences which he had accounted for in larger models, and that it was also possible to deal with those influences on the basis of smaller models. While there are ten variables in the model, it can be reduced to four main equations, as Tinbergen did himself in another paper (Tinbergen, 1937b). It is then always possible to find the aggregate level of employment from these equations and the employment in both sectors, with a relation given by Tinbergen between the level of employment in the two sectors and profits. All the variables are measured as deviations from their equilibrium value, and the unit of time is assumed to be four months.

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Pump-Priming Debates in America

It is now apparent that Tinbergen built a strong case for an active economic policy, although he disputed some forms of interventionism, in particular on wages. His theoretical macro-dynamic models as well as his econometric works were guided by the search for useful economic policies that would ensure the stability of the system and the damping out of fluctuations, something that was present since he wrote his thesis in 1929. In the previous section, we saw that he also looked for policies that would help the economy obtain higher levels of production and employment. Tinbergen’s position in Europe ensured a large diffusion of his ideas which were endorsed by many other European econometricians.

The situation in the USA was quite different; although there were many American econometricians, led in particular by Charles Roos at the Cowles Commission, discussions of macro-dynamic models and fiscal policy were scarce during their winter meetings. Most economists remained skeptical of the possibilities offered by public intervention, especially financed by a deficit, viewed as the source of important distorsions. Few of them participated actively in the policies put in place by the New Deal; although Roos became the Research Director of the National Recovery Administration this experience seemed at odds with his models based on the intertemporal maximization of profits ${ }^8$; the NRA itself was disbanded in 1935, after Roosevelt’s first term saw the rise of a coalition of businessmen and conservatives that was largely successful in convincing the Supreme Court to repel many laws of the first New Deal. Roosevelt himself was not in favor of continuing the de facto deficit that characterized his first term (Barber, 1996: 100, 102 ff.) and his second term began with a victory of the “budget-balancers” in the public finance battle, leading to an almost balanced budget in 1937.

This context dramatically changed in the autumn of 1937 , when a new recession led in a few months to a $40 \%$ drop in production and a rise of unemployment from $14 \%$ to $19 \%$. While the autumn of 1929 remains today in memories as the beginning of the Great Depression, the crisis in the autumn of 1937 was an even bigger shock for the economists of the time, an “intellectually traumatic” episode (Salant, 1976: 15) in particular because the economy was still far from its full employment level (Barber, 1996: 104-105). It was this crisis and the widely diverging interpretations of its causes that shifted the tide of economists (reinforced by the growing influx of economists from central Europe), and which created the conditions for a return of massive deficits in the span of a few months. ${ }^9$ Hansen became the unofficial leader of the New Economics in America and carried with him the graduate students of Harvard’s economic department. ${ }^{10}$ It was only at this point that a macro-dynamic model integrating Keynesian ingredients was specifically built in the USA to explain and describe the consequences of the changes in fiscal policy during the past few years, with the aim to justify the perpetuation of a high level of expenditures.

宏观经济学代考

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Tinbergen’s Analysis of the Multiplier

正如我们在第 1 章中强调的那样,从丁伯根对经济问题产生兴趣开始,经济政策问题就构成了他分析的核心部分。6. 丁伯根将他的第一个模型应用于从工资政策到原材料的广泛问题,并试图阐明被认为最重要的机制。1935 年后,他开始建立和估计更大的模型,最终出版了他为国际联盟丁伯根所做的两卷本研究报告(1939A,b). 对最佳经济政策的讨论构成了这些较大模型的核心部分,这些著作对经济分析发展的重要性已被多次强调。2

虽然这些模型对该学科产生了深远的影响,但我们不会在本书中讨论它们,因为它们提供的关于经济稳定性问题的信息很少。相反,我们想关注 Tinbergen 同时开发的其他模型,他用这些模型来回答热门问题,并为经常因缺乏完整形式化而受到损害的问题带来新的视角。一个典型的例子是 Tinbergen 对乘数的处理,他在 1937 年发表于 Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv 的一篇论文(Tinbergen,1937c)中发展了这一点。这篇论文的意义在于他对经济政策的理论结论,以及它对“刺激经济”可能性的启示,这同时也是美国重要辩论的主题。

乘数是由凯恩斯和卡恩在 1930 年代早期开发的(卡恩,1931 年,凯恩斯,1933 年)。3在最简单的形式中,这个想法是经济中的特定支出可以导致初始支出的支出产生的初级效应,但当接受初级波的工人在经济中花费他们的新收入时,也会产生次级效应。卡恩的方法,由丁伯根总结,是认为当一部分k的新收入我在一段时间内花费n初始支出后,新部分等于kn. 每增加一笔收入k我+k2我+⋯+kn我形成了一个几何级数我1−k, 在哪里11−k是凯恩斯乘数。对丁伯根来说,这种分析特别有趣,因为它提出了动态考虑因素,但这仍然过于粗糙,无法真正为经济政策提供信息。

Tinbergen 认为这忽略了他在较大模型中考虑的一些重要影响,并且也可以在较小模型的基础上处理这些影响。虽然模型中有十个变量,但它可以简化为四个主要方程,正如 Tinbergen 在另一篇论文中所做的那样 (Tinbergen, 1937b)。然后,总是可以从这些方程式和两个部门的就业率中找到总的就业水平,以及 Tinbergen 给出的两个部门的就业水平与利润之间的关系。所有变量均以其均衡值的偏差来衡量,时间单位假定为四个月。

经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代考|Pump-Priming Debates in America

现在很明显,丁伯根为积极的经济政策建立了强有力的理由,尽管他对某些形式的干预主义提出异议,尤其是在工资方面。他的理论宏观动力学模型以及他的计量经济学著作都以寻找有用的经济政策为指导,这些政策将确保系统的稳定性和波动的抑制,这是他在 1929 年撰写论文以来就存在的东西。上一节,我们看到他还寻找有助于经济获得更高水平生产和就业的政策。丁伯根在欧洲的地位确保了他的思想得到广泛传播,并得到许多其他欧洲计量经济学家的认可。

美国的情况完全不同。尽管有许多美国计量经济学家,尤其是考尔斯委员会的查尔斯·鲁斯 (Charles Roos) 为首,但在他们的冬季会议上很少讨论宏观动态模型和财政政策。大多数经济学家仍然对公共干预所提供的可能性持怀疑态度,尤其是在财政赤字的情况下,被视为严重扭曲的根源。他们中很少有人积极参与新政制定的政策;尽管罗斯成为国家复兴管理局的研究主任,但这段经历似乎与他基于跨期利润最大化的模型不一致8; NRA 本身于 1935 年解散,当时罗斯福的第一个任期见证了商人和保守派联盟的崛起,该联盟在很大程度上成功说服最高法院驳回了第一次新政的许多法律。罗斯福本人不赞成继续存在他第一个任期的实际赤字 (Barber, 1996: 100, 102 ff.),他的第二个任期以“预算平衡者”在公共财政斗争中的胜利开始,领导到 1937 年几乎达到平衡的预算。

这种情况在 1937 年秋天发生了戏剧性的变化,新的经济衰退在几个月内导致了40%生产下降和失业率上升14%到19%. 虽然 1929 年秋天作为大萧条的开始在今天的记忆中仍然存在,但 1937 年秋天的危机对当时的经济学家来说是一个更大的冲击,这是一个“智力创伤”事件(Salant,1976:15)特别是因为经济仍远未达到充分就业水平(Barber,1996:104-105)。正是这场危机以及对其原因的广泛分歧的解释改变了经济学家的潮流(中欧经济学家的涌入进一步加强了这一趋势),并为几个月内重新出现大规模赤字创造了条件。9汉森成为美国新经济学的非官方领袖,并带走了哈佛经济系的研究生。10正是在这一点上,美国专门建立了一个融合凯恩斯主义成分的宏观动态模型来解释和描述过去几年财政政策变化的后果,目的是证明高水平的长期存在是合理的。支出。

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金融工程代写

金融工程是使用数学技术来解决金融问题。金融工程使用计算机科学、统计学、经济学和应用数学领域的工具和知识来解决当前的金融问题,以及设计新的和创新的金融产品。

非参数统计代写

非参数统计指的是一种统计方法,其中不假设数据来自于由少数参数决定的规定模型;这种模型的例子包括正态分布模型和线性回归模型。

广义线性模型代考

广义线性模型(GLM)归属统计学领域,是一种应用灵活的线性回归模型。该模型允许因变量的偏差分布有除了正态分布之外的其它分布。

术语 广义线性模型(GLM)通常是指给定连续和/或分类预测因素的连续响应变量的常规线性回归模型。它包括多元线性回归,以及方差分析和方差分析(仅含固定效应)。

有限元方法代写

有限元方法(FEM)是一种流行的方法,用于数值解决工程和数学建模中出现的微分方程。典型的问题领域包括结构分析、传热、流体流动、质量运输和电磁势等传统领域。

有限元是一种通用的数值方法,用于解决两个或三个空间变量的偏微分方程(即一些边界值问题)。为了解决一个问题,有限元将一个大系统细分为更小、更简单的部分,称为有限元。这是通过在空间维度上的特定空间离散化来实现的,它是通过构建对象的网格来实现的:用于求解的数值域,它有有限数量的点。边界值问题的有限元方法表述最终导致一个代数方程组。该方法在域上对未知函数进行逼近。[1] 然后将模拟这些有限元的简单方程组合成一个更大的方程系统,以模拟整个问题。然后,有限元通过变化微积分使相关的误差函数最小化来逼近一个解决方案。

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随机分析代写


随机微积分是数学的一个分支,对随机过程进行操作。它允许为随机过程的积分定义一个关于随机过程的一致的积分理论。这个领域是由日本数学家伊藤清在第二次世界大战期间创建并开始的。

时间序列分析代写

随机过程,是依赖于参数的一组随机变量的全体,参数通常是时间。 随机变量是随机现象的数量表现,其时间序列是一组按照时间发生先后顺序进行排列的数据点序列。通常一组时间序列的时间间隔为一恒定值(如1秒,5分钟,12小时,7天,1年),因此时间序列可以作为离散时间数据进行分析处理。研究时间序列数据的意义在于现实中,往往需要研究某个事物其随时间发展变化的规律。这就需要通过研究该事物过去发展的历史记录,以得到其自身发展的规律。

回归分析代写

多元回归分析渐进(Multiple Regression Analysis Asymptotics)属于计量经济学领域,主要是一种数学上的统计分析方法,可以分析复杂情况下各影响因素的数学关系,在自然科学、社会和经济学等多个领域内应用广泛。

MATLAB代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中,其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括:数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发,包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统,其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题,尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题,而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问,这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展,得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中,它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域,MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要,工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数(M 文件)的综合集合,可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

R语言代写问卷设计与分析代写
PYTHON代写回归分析与线性模型代写
MATLAB代写方差分析与试验设计代写
STATA代写机器学习/统计学习代写
SPSS代写计量经济学代写
EVIEWS代写时间序列分析代写
EXCEL代写深度学习代写
SQL代写各种数据建模与可视化代写

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